Cannabis Withdrawal Research

Cannabis Withdrawal and Psychiatric Intensive Care.

Malik, Aliyah · 2025

Among 52,088 psychiatric admissions in London over 16 years, cannabis users were 44% more likely than non-users to require psychiatric intensive care overall.

Prevalence of cannabis withdrawal symptoms among people with regular or dependent use of cannabinoids: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Bahji, Anees · 2020

This was the first meta-analysis to estimate how common cannabis withdrawal syndrome actually is.

US Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Associated Problems.

Hasin, Deborah S · 2018

This comprehensive review documented the shifting landscape of cannabis use in the United States. Both adults and adolescents increasingly perceive cannabis as harmless.

The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: current insights.

Bonnet, Udo · 2017

The review synthesized evidence that regular cannabis use causes desensitization and downregulation of brain CB1 receptors, which begins reversing within the first 2 days of abstinence and normalizes within about 4 weeks.

Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: Diagnosis, Pathophysiology, and Treatment-a Systematic Review.

Sorensen, Cecilia J · 2017

This extensive systematic review analyzed 2,178 articles, ultimately including 183 studies with cumulative case data.

Dronabinol and lofexidine for cannabis use disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

Levin, Frances R · 2016

With no approved medications for cannabis use disorder, researchers tested a combination approach: dronabinol (synthetic THC, to ease withdrawal by providing cannabinoid receptor stimulation) plus lofexidine (an alpha-2 agonist, to reduce noradrenergic symptoms of withdrawal). One hundred fifty-six cannabis-dependent adults were enrolled, with 122 randomized after a placebo lead-in week.

Evidence-based Treatment Options in Cannabis Dependency.

Walther, Lisa · 2016

This evidence-based review of treatment options for cannabis dependence found psychotherapy to be the most effective approach, with all psychotherapeutic interventions supported at evidence level Ia (the highest). Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) combined with other techniques showed moderate to large effects (Cohen's d = 0.53-0.9) on cannabis consumption, psychosocial functioning, and dependence severity.

Nabiximols as an agonist replacement therapy during cannabis withdrawal: a randomized clinical trial.

Allsop, David J · 2014

In a double-blind clinical trial, 51 cannabis-dependent treatment seekers received either nabiximols (up to 86.4 mg THC and 80 mg CBD daily) or placebo during a 9-day inpatient admission, followed by 28 days of outpatient follow-up.

Cannabis withdrawal in the United States: results from NESARC.

Hasin, Deborah S · 2008

Using data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), researchers examined cannabis withdrawal among 2,613 frequent users (three or more times per week) and a subset of 1,119 "cannabis-only" users who didn't binge drink or use other drugs frequently. Withdrawal was common: 44.3% of the full sample and 44.2% of the cannabis-only subset experienced two or more symptoms.

Consumption patterns and withdrawal symptoms in dual cannabis-tobacco users in Spain: Cross-sectional study.

Saura, Judith · 2026

This cross-sectional study of 94 participants entering cannabis use disorder treatment in Catalonia, Spain, documented the deeply intertwined nature of cannabis and tobacco use in a European context where mixing the two substances in "spliffs" is the dominant consumption method. Daily tobacco use was reported by 91.5% of participants, with a mean Fagerström nicotine dependence score of 4.2 out of 10 (moderate dependence).

Household cannabis cessation and adolescent mental health outcomes in a prospective cohort study.

Wang, Ming · 2026

Using longitudinal data from the ABCD Study, researchers identified adolescents (ages 10–13) living in households where someone used cannabis, then tracked what happened to the teens' mental health when household members stopped. After propensity score matching to control for demographic and psychological differences, household cannabis cessation was associated with improvements in adolescents' internalizing problems (anxiety, depression), externalizing problems (conduct, aggression), and psychotic-like experiences. The study went further to identify potential pathways.

Emerging pharmacological strategies for the treatment of cannabis use disorder.

Bahji, Anees · 2025

The pharmacologic treatment of CUD remains in its early stages with no FDA-approved options.

Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC) use and harms in Ireland: New findings from the 2024 European Web Survey on Drugs.

Mongan, Deirdre · 2025

Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC)—a semi-synthetic cannabinoid marketed as a legal alternative to cannabis—was openly sold in Irish shops until it was banned in July 2025.

Pharmacotherapies for cannabis use disorder.

Spiga, Francesca · 2025

This is the gold standard of evidence synthesis: a Cochrane systematic review, now in its second update since 2014.

Biobehavioral and affective stress responses during nicotine withdrawal: Influence of regular cannabis co-use.

al'Absi, Mustafa · 2024

Cannabis co-users exhibited exaggerated diastolic blood pressure responses to stress compared to non-cannabis users, and people using both nicotine and cannabis had higher cannabis craving than cannabis-only users (p<0.01).

Somatic and anxiety-like behaviors in male and female rats during withdrawal from the non-selective cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2.

Brewer, Abigail L · 2024

Females showed precipitated withdrawal at 3 mg/kg rimonabant while males required 10 mg/kg.

Exploratory Growth Mixture Modeling of Cannabis-Withdrawal Syndrome Trajectories of Adult Pure Cannabis Dependents During Detoxification: Two Subtypes?

Claus, Benedikt Bernd · 2024

Two withdrawal trajectory classes emerged: class 1 (n=44, 66%) with continuously decreasing severity ("protracted"), and class 2 (n=23, 34%) with a sharp peak generally between days 2-6 followed by rapid decline.

Use and perceptions of Cannabidiol among individuals in treatment for opioid use disorder.

Kudrich, Christopher · 2024

CBD has become wildly popular, with claims ranging from anxiety relief to pain management.

Assessing changes in sleep across four weeks among adolescents randomized to incentivized cannabis abstinence.

Baumer, Andreas M · 2023

In a randomized trial of 116 adolescents, those assigned to verified abstinence reported worse overall sleep quality than the monitoring group, but the disruption was specific to increased sleep latency during week one, which resolved by week two and remained at baseline through week four..

Clinical management of cannabis withdrawal.

Connor, Jason P · 2022

Cannabis withdrawal occurs in approximately 50% of regular/dependent users.

Clinical withdrawal symptom profile of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and comparison of effects with high potency cannabis.

Craft, Sam · 2022

Users reported a mean of 4.4 withdrawal symptoms after 1+ day without SCRAs.

Impact of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition on cannabis withdrawal and circulating endocannabinoids in daily cannabis smokers.

Haney, Margaret · 2022

Compared to placebo, celecoxib improved some subjective sleep measures but did not affect mood, cannabis self-administration, or circulating endocannabinoid levels.

Changes in striatal dopamine release, sleep, and behavior during spontaneous Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol abstinence in male and female mice.

Kesner, Andrew J · 2022

THC withdrawal produced altered striatal dopamine release, sleep disturbances that mimic clinical observations (disrupted sleep architecture), and affect-related behavioral changes.

The Effects of Cannabinoids on Sleep.

Kolla, Bhanu Prakash · 2022

Cannabis products have minimal to no effects on sleep disorders and may have deleterious effects in some individuals.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome and cannabis withdrawal syndrome: a review of the management of cannabis-related syndrome in the emergency department.

Razban, Mohammad · 2022

CHS and CWS both present with abdominal pain and vomiting but arise from different pathophysiology.

Assessment of Withdrawal, Mood, and Sleep Inventories After Monitored 3-Week Abstinence in Cannabis-Using Adolescents and Young Adults.

Sullivan, Ryan M · 2022

Cannabis-using participants (n=37) reported higher overall withdrawal, mood symptoms, and sleep problems than controls (n=42) during 3 weeks of verified abstinence.

Is the Urine Cannabinoid Level Measured via a Commercial Point-of-Care Semiquantitative Immunoassay a Cannabis Withdrawal Syndrome Severity Predictor?

Claus, Benedikt Bernd · 2020

Urinary THC-COOH levels significantly correlated with Marijuana Withdrawal Checklist scores across the 24-day study (r = 0.248, p < 0.001).

Abrupt withdrawal of cannabidiol (CBD): A randomized trial.

Taylor, Lesley · 2020

After four weeks of 1,500 mg daily CBD, volunteers randomized to abrupt discontinuation showed no increase in withdrawal scores.

Single and combined effects of plant-derived and synthetic cannabinoids on cognition and cannabinoid-associated withdrawal signs in mice.

Myers, Alyssa M · 2019

THC caused significant motor and cognitive impairment in Barnes maze; adding CBD did not attenuate these effects.

A Survey of Cannabis Acute Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms: Differential Responses Across User Types and Age.

Sexton, Michelle · 2019

Most common acute effects: improved sleep, calmness, desire to eat, creativity, dry mouth.

The Psychiatric Consequences of Cannabinoids.

De Aquino, Joao P · 2018

This overview examined the psychiatric effects of both plant-based and synthetic cannabinoids across different timeframes. Acutely, cannabinoids produce multiphasic, dose-dependent effects on anxiety, mood, and perception while impairing cognition and psychomotor function.

The Prevalence of Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome Among Regular Marijuana Smokers in an Urban Public Hospital.

Habboushe, Joseph · 2018

Researchers surveyed patients aged 18-49 at the oldest public hospital in the United States, screening for those who smoked marijuana at least 20 days per month. Of 2,127 patients approached, 155 met the criteria of smoking 20 or more days per month.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome presentation to the emergency department: A two-year multicentre retrospective chart review in a major urban area.

Hernandez, Jeremy M · 2018

Researchers reviewed charts of all adults aged 18-55 presenting to two major urban tertiary care EDs and one urgent care centre with vomiting complaints over two years. Of 494 cases, 19.4% of charts specifically reported cannabis use.

Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Scott, J. Cobb · 2018

This was the first quantitative synthesis of the cannabis-cognition literature in adolescents and young adults.

A Systematic Review of the Efficacy of Cannabinoid Agonist Replacement Therapy for Cannabis Withdrawal Symptoms.

Werneck, Maira Aguiar · 2018

Dronabinol, nabilone, and nabiximols, used alone or in combination with other drugs, showed promise in reducing cannabis withdrawal symptoms.

Recreational stimulants, herbal, and spice cannabis: The core psychobiological processes that underlie their damaging effects.

Parrott, Andrew C · 2017

The review proposes that all recreational psychoactive drugs, including cannabis, cause harm through a shared core mechanism: acute mood gains followed by mood deficits on withdrawal, creating a cycle of psychobiological fluctuations. These mood swings are surface indicators of deeper disruptions.

Impact of synthetic cannabinoids on the duration of opioid-related withdrawal and craving among patients of addiction clinics in Kazakhstan: A prospective case-control study.

Prilutskaya, Mariya · 2017

Among 193 patients with opioid use disorder undergoing detoxification in Kazakhstan, the 47 who also regularly used synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) experienced significantly longer withdrawal and craving symptoms compared to those who did not use SCs (p < 0.001). The study identified a dose-response relationship: higher SC intake in the past 30 days (p = 0.045), more recent SC use (p = 0.033), longer total duration of SC use (p < 0.001), and higher SC doses (p < 0.001) were all independently associated with longer symptom duration. This was the first prospective study to examine how synthetic cannabinoid use affects the course of opioid withdrawal, revealing that polysubstance use involving SCs creates a more difficult detoxification process..

Pharmacologic Treatment of Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: A Systematic Review.

Richards, John R · 2017

The systematic review analyzed 63 eligible articles covering 205 CHS patients.

Cannabis Withdrawal: A Review of Neurobiological Mechanisms and Sex Differences.

Schlienz, Nicolas J · 2017

The review synthesized preclinical and clinical research on cannabis withdrawal, identifying several key findings. Long-term cannabis use downregulates CB1 receptors throughout the brain.

Gender differences among treatment-seeking adults with cannabis use disorder: Clinical profiles of women and men enrolled in the achieving cannabis cessation-evaluating N-acetylcysteine treatment (ACCENT) study.

Sherman, Brian J · 2017

Comparing 86 women and 216 men entering a multi-site cannabis cessation trial, women presented with a more clinically complex picture despite using cannabis at similar rates and quantities. Women reported significantly greater withdrawal intensity (p = 0.001) and negative impact of withdrawal (p = 0.001), driven primarily by physiological and mood symptoms.

The endocannabinoid system as a target for addiction treatment: Trials and tribulations.

Sloan, Matthew E · 2017

This review examined randomized controlled trial evidence for cannabinoid-based medications across different addictions. For cannabis use disorder: THC-containing medications like dronabinol and nabiximols (Sativex) effectively reduced withdrawal symptoms.

Novel Treatments for Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome: Beyond Ondansetron and Amitriptyline.

Bhandari, Sanjay · 2016

This review examined treatment options for cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS), a disorder of episodic severe nausea and vomiting, and addressed the complicated relationship between CVS and cannabis. The recognition that chronic cannabis use is associated with cyclic vomiting led to the proposed diagnosis of "cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome" (CHS), which presents identically to CVS.

Adverse Effects of Synthetic Cannabinoids: Management of Acute Toxicity and Withdrawal.

Cooper, Ziva D · 2016

This review addressed both acute toxicity and the less-discussed problem of dependence and withdrawal from synthetic cannabinoids (SCs). While case reports and media coverage focus on severe acute toxicity, the review highlighted that daily SC use resulting in dependence and withdrawal is a significant and often overlooked concern.

Cannabis withdrawal and sleep: A systematic review of human studies.

Gates, Peter · 2016

Sleep problems during cannabis withdrawal are among the most commonly reported symptoms and a major reason people relapse.

Effects of zolpidem alone and in combination with nabilone on cannabis withdrawal and a laboratory model of relapse in cannabis users.

Herrmann, Evan S · 2016

Eleven daily cannabis users completed three 8-day inpatient stays testing different medication conditions during monitored cannabis withdrawal. Both zolpidem alone and zolpidem plus nabilone improved sleep during withdrawal.

Opioid withdrawal suppression efficacy of oral dronabinol in opioid dependent humans.

Lofwall, Michelle R · 2016

The cannabinoid system shares neural circuitry with the opioid system, making it a rational target for treating opioid dependence.

Effect of Pharmacological Modulation of the Endocannabinoid System on Opiate Withdrawal: A Review of the Preclinical Animal Literature.

Wills, Kiri L · 2016

This review synthesized animal research on how manipulating the endocannabinoid system affects opiate withdrawal.

Cannabinoid replacement therapy (CRT): Nabiximols (Sativex) as a novel treatment for cannabis withdrawal.

Allsop, D J · 2015

The review outlines a novel approach to treating cannabis dependence using nabiximols (Sativex), a buccal spray containing THC and CBD.

No evidence for reduction of opioid-withdrawal symptoms by cannabis smoking during a methadone dose taper.

Epstein, David H · 2015

Researchers analyzed data from 116 outpatient heroin and cocaine users undergoing a 10-week methadone taper, of whom 46 also used cannabis.

Cannabinoid abuse and addiction: Clinical and preclinical findings.

Panlilio, L V · 2015

This review synthesized research on the mechanisms of cannabinoid abuse, withdrawal, and relapse from both human and animal studies. The review described how cannabinoids produce rewarding effects through CB1 receptor activation in the brain's reward circuitry, how tolerance develops through receptor downregulation, and how withdrawal symptoms emerge when chronic stimulation stops.

Abstinence phenomena of chronic cannabis-addicts prospectively monitored during controlled inpatient detoxification: cannabis withdrawal syndrome and its correlation with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and -metabolites in serum.

Bonnet, U · 2014

Thirty-nine chronic cannabis-dependent patients were monitored during inpatient detoxification.

Sleep and substance use disorders: an update.

Conroy, Deirdre A · 2014

This review examined the bidirectional relationship between sleep disorders and substance use.

Lithium carbonate in the management of cannabis withdrawal: a randomized placebo-controlled trial in an inpatient setting.

Johnston, Jennifer · 2014

In a double-blind RCT, 38 cannabis-dependent adults were randomized to lithium (500 mg twice daily) or placebo for 8 days of inpatient withdrawal.

Cannabis withdrawal in chronic, frequent cannabis smokers during sustained abstinence within a closed residential environment.

Lee, Dayong · 2014

Twenty-nine chronic, frequent cannabis smokers were monitored during sustained abstinence on a closed research unit.

Plasma cannabinoid concentrations during dronabinol pharmacotherapy for cannabis dependence.

Milman, Garry · 2014

During placebo dosing periods, blood THC and its metabolites consistently decreased, supporting the withdrawal symptoms observed.

A human laboratory study investigating the effects of quetiapine on marijuana withdrawal and relapse in daily marijuana smokers.

Cooper, Ziva D · 2013

In a double-blind, within-subjects study, 14 heavy cannabis smokers (averaging 10 joints/day) completed two 15-day medication phases (quetiapine 200 mg/day vs.

Nabilone decreases marijuana withdrawal and a laboratory measure of marijuana relapse.

Haney, Margaret · 2013

Eleven daily marijuana smokers (averaging 8.3 joints/day) completed a within-subjects study testing three nabilone doses (0, 6, 8 mg/day).

The dose effects of short-term dronabinol (oral THC) maintenance in daily cannabis users.

Vandrey, Ryan · 2013

Thirteen daily cannabis smokers completed a within-subject crossover study receiving 0, 30, 60, and 120 mg dronabinol per day for five consecutive days each.

A genetic perspective on the proposed inclusion of cannabis withdrawal in DSM-5.

Verweij, K J H · 2013

In a study of 2,276 Australian twins who had used cannabis at least once, 11.9% met criteria for DSM-5 cannabis withdrawal.

The Cannabis Withdrawal Scale development: patterns and predictors of cannabis withdrawal and distress.

Allsop, David J · 2011

Researchers developed and validated the Cannabis Withdrawal Scale using 49 dependent cannabis users who provided daily symptom scores during one baseline week and two weeks of abstinence. The scale demonstrated excellent psychometric properties: internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.91) and test-retest stability (average intra-class correlation = 0.95). Nightmares and strange dreams were the most statistically valid withdrawal indicator (Wald chi-squared = 105.6) but caused relatively little distress.

Dronabinol for the treatment of cannabis dependence: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

Levin, Frances R · 2011

This was the first clinical trial testing an agonist substitution strategy for cannabis dependence, similar to how methadone is used for opioid dependence. 156 cannabis-dependent adults were randomized to dronabinol (20 mg twice daily) or placebo for 12 weeks, with all participants receiving weekly therapy.

Marijuana dependence: not just smoke and mirrors.

Ramesh, Divya · 2011

The review compiled evidence that prolonged cannabis use produces genuine physical dependence in both humans and laboratory animals.

Pharmacological treatment of cannabis dependence.

Weinstein, A M · 2011

This review surveyed the landscape of pharmacological treatments for cannabis dependence, a condition with rising treatment admissions but no approved medications.

Inhibitors of endocannabinoid-metabolizing enzymes reduce precipitated withdrawal responses in THC-dependent mice.

Schlosburg, Joel E · 2009

Researchers tested whether increasing endocannabinoid levels could ease THC withdrawal in dependent mice. Both the FAAH inhibitor URB597 (which raises anandamide) and the MAGL inhibitor JZL184 (which raises 2-AG) significantly attenuated withdrawal signs precipitated by the CB1 antagonist rimonabant in THC-dependent mice. Importantly, subchronic URB597 administration did not itself produce cannabinoid dependence, and neither inhibitor impaired motor coordination on the rotarod test. Interestingly, FAAH knockout mice (born without the enzyme) showed identical withdrawal responses as normal mice, suggesting that constitutive absence of FAAH throughout the development of dependence does not affect withdrawal, while acute FAAH inhibition during withdrawal does..

Clinical trial of abstinence-based vouchers and cognitive-behavioral therapy for cannabis dependence

Budney, Alan J. · 2006

Three groups were compared for 14 weeks: cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) alone, abstinence-based voucher incentives alone, and the combination.

Long-term use of a cannabis-based medicine in the treatment of spasticity and other symptoms in multiple sclerosis.

Wade, D T · 2006

Following a 10-week placebo-controlled study, 137 MS patients entered this open-label trial and used Sativex for an average of 434 days (range 21-814 days).

Cannabinoid tolerance and dependence: a review of studies in laboratory animals.

González, Sara · 2005

This extensive review compiled evidence from laboratory animal studies on cannabinoid tolerance and dependence.

Comorbidity: cannabis and complexity.

Raphael, Beverley · 2005

This review covered multiple dimensions of cannabis health effects and comorbidity.

Cannabis withdrawal in adolescent treatment seekers.

Vandrey, Ryan · 2005

Adolescents presenting for outpatient substance abuse treatment with cannabis as their primary drug completed questionnaires about withdrawal symptoms during past periods of abstinence. Nearly two-thirds reported experiencing four or more withdrawal symptoms.

Review of the validity and significance of cannabis withdrawal syndrome

Budney, Alan J. · 2004

Across human laboratory studies and clinical reports, a reproducible cluster of symptoms showed up after discontinuing chronic heavy cannabis or THC use.

Marijuana withdrawal in humans: effects of oral THC or divalproex.

Haney, Margaret · 2004

In two controlled studies with heavy marijuana users (6-10 joints per day), oral THC (10 mg five times daily) administered during marijuana abstinence decreased anxiety, misery, trouble sleeping, chills, and craving, and reversed large decreases in food intake.

Clinical relevance of cannabis tolerance and dependence.

Jones, R T · 1981

Drawing on data from 120 research subjects, this review documented how the body adapts to repeated cannabis exposure and what happens when use stops. Tolerance developed to multiple effects: cardiovascular changes, lowered eye pressure, sleep disruption, mood changes, and behavioral effects.

Cannabis Use Patterns and Blood Profiles in Adolescent Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome.

Bloom, Joshua · 2026

This pilot study screened 869 adolescent emergency department patients to identify 10 with cyclic vomiting onset after chronic cannabis use—a ratio that illustrates both how common the screening population is and how specifically they identified CHS cases. All 10 participants had cannabis use disorder (9) or hazardous cannabis use (1) by validated assessment.

Tolerance but No Spontaneous Withdrawal Following Repeated THC Injections in Male and Female Rats.

Hickey, Christa M · 2026

Researchers injected male and female rats with THC (3 mg/kg, twice daily) or vehicle for seven days, then abruptly stopped and monitored for withdrawal symptoms over five days using voluntary home cage wheel running — chosen as a sensitive, objective, and continuous measure. On day 1, THC profoundly decreased wheel running in both sexes compared to vehicle-treated rats — confirming the drug's acute sedating effects.

Effects of oral cannabidiol (CBD) on spontaneous opioid withdrawal in male and female rats.

Jenkins, Bryan W · 2026

In a well-powered study (N=100, 50% female), researchers made rats dependent on morphine through 10 days of escalating doses (10–50 mg/kg, twice daily), then abruptly stopped and treated with oral CBD (10 or 30 mg/kg daily) or vehicle starting 14 hours after the last morphine injection. The results were largely negative for CBD's ability to treat acute withdrawal.

The Effects of Extended Cannabis Abstinence in Comorbid Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Cannabis Use Disorder.

Rodas, Justyne D · 2026

In this open-label pilot study, 21 veterans with both PTSD and cannabis use disorder attempted 12 weeks of cannabis abstinence with contingency reinforcement (progressive payments for confirmed abstinence at weeks 4, 8, and 12). Eleven participants achieved sustained abstinence; ten did not.

Characterizing proximal risk for depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation with acute cannabis use and withdrawal among adolescents using ecological momentary assessment: Study protocol.

Feibus, Isabella · 2025

Heavy cannabis use and depression frequently co-occur in adolescents, with cannabis users at increased risk of major depressive episodes and suicidal ideation.

Unveiling the link between chronic pain and misuse of opioids and cannabis.

Dagher, Merel · 2024

Over 50 million Americans live with chronic pain, and many don't receive adequate treatment.

Differential disruption of response alternation by precipitated Δ9-THC withdrawal and subsequent Δ9-THC abstinence in mice.

Eckard, Matthew L · 2024

After 5 days of twice-daily THC (10 mg/kg), rimonabant-precipitated withdrawal caused longer session times, longer response latencies, more errors, and slower error correction in THC-treated mice.

Cannabis Hyperemesis Syndrome in a Recently Abstinent Chronic User: Assessment and Intervention.

Ei Sherif, Yasmine · 2024

CHS symptoms (severe vomiting, abdominal pain, fever) emerged approximately one week after cessation of daily cannabis use, with standard anti-emetics (ondansetron) failing.

Cannabidiol Reduced the Severity of Gastrointestinal Symptoms of Opioid Withdrawal in Male and Female Mice.

Scicluna, Rhianne L · 2024

CBD at 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg dose-dependently reduced gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea, fecal output, weight loss) during both precipitated and spontaneous oxycodone withdrawal in male mice and during precipitated withdrawal in female mice.

Sleep disturbance after cessation of cannabis administration in mice.

Asano, Takashi · 2023

During cannabinoid administration, there was no difference in sleep/wake patterns between treated and control mice.

Implementation and Preliminary Evaluation of a 12-Week Cognitive Behavioural and Motivational Enhancement Group Therapy for Cannabis Use Disorder.

Trick, Leanne · 2023

Cannabis use disorder (CUD) is increasingly recognized as a real clinical condition, but treatment options have been slow to develop.

Alleviation of opioid withdrawal by cannabis and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: A systematic review of observational and experimental human studies.

De Aquino, Joao P · 2022

Of 11 studies with 5,330 participants, four observational studies found cannabis use was associated with reduced opioid withdrawal, one found worsening symptoms, and four found no association.

The Cannabinoid Receptor Type 1 Positive Allosteric Modulator ZCZ011 Attenuates Naloxone-Precipitated Diarrhea and Weight Loss in Oxycodone-Dependent Mice.

Dodu, Julien C · 2022

ZCZ011 completely eliminated naloxone-precipitated diarrhea and weight loss in oxycodone-dependent mice and reduced paw flutters by about half.

Adjunctive Management of Opioid Withdrawal with the Nonopioid Medication Cannabidiol.

Kudrich, Christopher · 2022

CBD has been reported to have anxiolytic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, and analgesic properties, plus reduction of cue-induced craving for opioids, all highly relevant to withdrawal symptoms.

CBD-mediated regulation of heroin withdrawal-induced behavioural and molecular changes in mice.

Navarrete, Francisco · 2022

Mice given CBD (10 and 20 mg/kg) during spontaneous heroin withdrawal showed significantly reduced anxiety-like behavior, motor hyperactivity, and somatic withdrawal signs compared to untreated heroin-dependent mice..

Lower dACC glutamate in cannabis users during early phase abstinence.

Zuo, Chun S · 2022

dACC glutamate was significantly lower in cannabis users compared to controls from baseline through day 21 of abstinence (F=5.90, p=0.022).

Gabapentin attenuates somatic signs of precipitated THC withdrawal in mice.

Eckard, M L · 2021

Gabapentin (10+ mg/kg) reduced paw tremors and head twitches during rimonabant-precipitated THC withdrawal.

Endocannabinoid and dopaminergic system: the pas de deux underlying human motivation and behaviors.

Laksmidewi, A A A Putri · 2021

This review framed the endocannabinoid-dopamine interaction through Maslow's hierarchy of needs — an unusual but clarifying lens.

The effect of daily aerobic cycling exercise on sleep quality during inpatient cannabis withdrawal: A randomised controlled trial.

McCartney, Danielle · 2021

The cycling group showed improved sleep duration (P = 0.008) and sleep efficiency (P = 0.023) from baseline to treatment, while the stretching control group saw increased sleep onset latency.

The impact of naturalistic cannabis use on self-reported opioid withdrawal.

Bergeria, Cecilia L · 2020

62.5% (125/200) had used cannabis to treat opioid withdrawal.

Guanfacine extended-release for cannabis use disorder: a pilot feasibility trial.

Dakwar, Elias · 2020

Among 22 cannabis-dependent individuals, daily cannabis use in grams (p = .004), dollars spent (p < .001), and days of use (p = .007) significantly decreased over the 8-week study.

Precipitated Δ9-THC withdrawal reduces motivation for sucrose reinforcement in mice.

Eckard, M L · 2020

Precipitated THC withdrawal (via rimonabant) caused large decreases in break point, overall response rate, and run rate on a progressive-ratio schedule in THC-treated but not vehicle-treated mice.

The short-acting synthetic cannabinoid AB-FUBINACA induces physical dependence in mice.

Trexler, Kristen R · 2020

AB-FUBINACA at 2+ mg/kg produced catalepsy, antinociception, hypothermia, and reduced locomotion, all blocked by CB1 antagonist rimonabant.

Use of Guanfacine for Cannabis Use Disorder and Related Symptomology.

Holst, Manuela · 2019

Guanfacine (3 mg/day) showed no significant effects on cannabis withdrawal, craving, or sleep compared to placebo.

CB1 positive allosteric modulation attenuates Δ9-THC withdrawal and NSAID-induced gastric inflammation.

Trexler, K R · 2019

ZCZ011 (at 10 mg/kg and above) significantly reduced somatic withdrawal signs including head twitches and paw tremors in both precipitated and spontaneous THC withdrawal models.

Tolerance and dependence to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rhesus monkeys: Activity assessments.

Wilkerson, Jenny L · 2019

Chronic THC (1 mg/kg every 12 hours) produced dependence: rimonabant-precipitated withdrawal caused up to 20-fold increase in home-cage activity.

Cannabis Withdrawal in Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Chauchard, Emeline · 2018

Researchers studied 23 cannabis-dependent adults with ADHD who described their most serious quit attempt without formal treatment.

Novel behavioral assays of spontaneous and precipitated THC withdrawal in mice.

Trexler, Kristen R · 2018

THC withdrawal (both precipitated and spontaneous) caused increased plasma corticosterone, suppressed marble burying (suggesting anxiety/anhedonia), increased struggling in the tail suspension test (despair-like behavior), and classic somatic withdrawal signs.

Adolescent Exposure to the Synthetic Cannabinoid WIN 55212-2 Modifies Cocaine Withdrawal Symptoms in Adult Mice.

Aguilar, María A · 2017

Mice pre-treated with the synthetic cannabinoid WIN 55212-2 during adolescence and then given chronic cocaine in adulthood showed a modified withdrawal profile compared to controls. Adolescent cannabinoid exposure prevented the anxiety increase normally seen during cocaine withdrawal.

Differential behavioral and molecular alterations upon protracted abstinence from cocaine versus morphine, nicotine, THC and alcohol.

Becker, Jérôme A J · 2017

After extended abstinence, mice that had been chronically treated with morphine, nicotine, THC, or alcohol all showed a common behavioral profile: reduced social recognition, increased motor stereotypies (repetitive behaviors), and increased anxiety.

Psychometric Properties of the Turkish Versions of the Cannabis Use Problems Identification Test (CUPIT) and the Adult Cannabis Problems Questionnaire (CPQ).

Evren, Cuneyt · 2017

The CUPIT and CPQ questionnaires were validated in a Turkish clinical sample of 52 cannabis users and 45 synthetic cannabinoid users being treated for use disorders.

Cannabinoid Type 1 Receptor (CB1) Ligands with Therapeutic Potential for Withdrawal Syndrome in Chemical Dependents of Cannabis sativa.

Ferreira, Jaderson V · 2017

Researchers used computational chemistry tools to screen for potential drug candidates to treat cannabis withdrawal syndrome, focusing on compounds that could interact with the CB1 cannabinoid receptor.

A patient with a curious case of cyclical vomiting.

Phillips, Hayden R · 2017

The case describes the clinical presentation of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, a condition increasingly recognized in emergency departments as cannabis legalization expands.

Coronary vasospasm complicating cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.

Pierard, Sophie · 2017

A 41-year-old man with a long history of cannabis smoking presented with recurrent episodes of epigastric and retrosternal (chest) pain.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: A disorder of the HPA axis and sympathetic nervous system?

Richards, John R · 2017

This hypothesis paper proposes a neurobiological mechanism for cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) that explains both the vomiting and the characteristic relief from hot water bathing. The author argues that chronic or excessive cannabis use leads to abnormal stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system (SNS).

Running Out of Options: Rhabdomyolysis Associated with Cannabis Hyperemesis Syndrome.

Trappey, Bernard E · 2017

A 24-year-old daily marijuana user with a history of CHS discovered that running, like hot bathing, alleviated his nausea and vomiting symptoms.

Haloperidol, a Novel Treatment for Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome.

Witsil, Joanne C · 2017

Four patients with CHS who failed standard emergency department therapy (including conventional antiemetics) showed significant improvement after treatment with haloperidol, an antipsychotic that primarily blocks dopamine D2 receptors. The authors propose a mechanistic explanation: CHS involves dysregulation of cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors, and recent animal research has revealed complex interactions between dopamine and CB1 signaling.

An Overlooked Victim of Cannabis: Losing Several Years of Well-being and Inches of Jejunum on the Way to Unravel Her Hyperemesis Enigma.

Bonnet, Udo · 2016

This case report described a patient with severe cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) that was notable for two reasons. First, the patient's symptoms worsened when she received dronabinol (a synthetic isomer of THC), providing what the authors called "first direct clinical evidence" that THC plays a key role in CHS pathogenesis.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome masquerading as an eating disorder.

Brewerton, Timothy D · 2016

This case report highlighted a diagnostic overlap between cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) and eating disorders.

Behavioral Characterization of the Effects of Cannabis Smoke and Anandamide in Rats.

Bruijnzeel, Adriaan W · 2016

Researchers exposed rats to actual cannabis smoke (not just THC) to study behavioral effects, including whether it produces dependence. Cannabis smoke caused a biphasic effect on locomotor activity: a brief increase followed by a prolonged decrease in movement and rearing behavior.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. A report of six new cases and a summary of previous reports.

Contreras Narváez, Carla · 2016

A Spanish hospital reported six cases of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) diagnosed between 2012 and 2014, accompanied by a summary of the 83 cases published worldwide through June 2014. The average time from onset of acute CHS episodes to correct diagnosis was 6.1 years at this hospital, compared to an average of 3.1 years in previously published cases.

Rapid changes in cannabinoid 1 receptor availability in cannabis-dependent male subjects after abstinence from cannabis

D'Souza, Deepak Cyril · 2016

At baseline, cannabis-dependent men had lower CB1 receptor availability across most brain regions compared with matched non‑users.

Pregabalin for the Treatment of Drug and Alcohol Withdrawal Symptoms: A Comprehensive Review.

Freynhagen, Rainer · 2016

This review examined evidence for using pregabalin, a nerve pain medication, to treat physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms across multiple substance categories including cannabinoids. The available evidence was limited, with few randomized controlled studies.

Are Alcohol Anti-relapsing and Alcohol Withdrawal Drugs Useful in Cannabinoid Users?

Kleczkowska, Patrycja · 2016

Cannabis is frequently used alongside alcohol, and many people who use cannabis also take medications for alcohol use disorder (AUD) or alcohol withdrawal.

Effects of fixed or self-titrated dosages of Sativex on cannabis withdrawal and cravings.

Trigo, Jose M · 2016

Nine cannabis-dependent community members underwent an 8-week trial alternating between smoking-as-usual periods and cannabis abstinence periods.

Abstinence phenomena of chronic cannabis-addicts prospectively monitored during controlled inpatient detoxification (Part II): Psychiatric complaints and their relation to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites in serum.

Bonnet, Udo · 2015

Thirty-five chronic cannabis-dependent individuals were monitored during inpatient detoxification using both clinician-rated and self-reported psychiatric scales.

Differential effects of endocannabinoid catabolic inhibitors on morphine withdrawal in mice.

Gamage, Thomas F · 2015

Researchers tested whether cannabinoid compounds could reduce different aspects of morphine withdrawal in mice.

Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services.

Macfarlane, Vicki · 2015

Researchers reviewed records from Auckland detoxification services over 12 months and found 47 people presenting for help with synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal.

The impact of gonadal hormones on cannabinoid dependence.

Marusich, Julie A · 2015

Researchers removed the gonads of male and female rats and selectively replaced hormones to isolate their effects on THC dependence.

Cannabinoid withdrawal in mice: inverse agonist vs neutral antagonist.

Tai, Sherrica · 2015

Researchers developed a mouse model of cannabinoid dependence using the potent, long-acting cannabinoid AM2389 and compared withdrawal precipitated by three different antagonists. Both rimonabant (inverse agonist) and AM4113 (neutral antagonist) precipitated withdrawal signs, while AM6545 (a peripherally restricted antagonist that does not enter the brain) did not.

Diagnosing and treating cannabinoid hyperemesis.

Wilson, Olivia · 2015

This article reviewed cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS), a condition first described in 2004 that causes severe, recurring nausea and vomiting in people who regularly use cannabis. Key features of CHS include cyclical episodes of intense nausea and vomiting, temporary relief from hot water bathing (a distinctive hallmark), failure to respond to conventional antiemetic medications, and complete resolution when cannabis use stops. The article noted that CHS is underrecognized in emergency settings, partly because the association between cannabis use and vomiting seems paradoxical, given that cannabis is often used to treat nausea..

Cannabis withdrawal syndrome: An important diagnostic consideration in adolescents presenting with disordered eating.

Chesney, Tyler · 2014

Three adolescents presented to an eating disorders program with gastrointestinal symptoms, food avoidance, and weight loss.

Physical activity and cannabis cessation.

Irons, Jessica G · 2014

In a study of 84 cannabis-dependent military veterans attempting self-guided cessation, those who reported low physical activity levels were significantly more likely to use cannabis during the first week after quitting compared to those with moderate or high activity levels.

Nabilone therapy for cannabis withdrawal presenting as protracted nausea and vomiting.

Lam, Philip W · 2014

A 20-year-old woman developed protracted nausea and vomiting after abruptly stopping chronic cannabis use.

Evaluation of sex differences in cannabinoid dependence.

Marusich, Julie A · 2014

After 6.5 days of twice-daily THC administration (30 mg/kg), rats challenged with the CB1 antagonist rimonabant displayed a pronounced withdrawal syndrome spanning multiple domains.

Pregabalin and topiramate regulate behavioural and brain gene transcription changes induced by spontaneous cannabinoid withdrawal in mice.

Aracil-Fernández, Auxiliadora · 2013

Mice made tolerant to the synthetic cannabinoid CP-55,940 showed increased motor activity, rearing, and anxiety-like behavior on days 1 and 3 after cessation.

Posttraumatic stress disorder and cannabis use characteristics among military veterans with cannabis dependence.

Boden, Matthew Tyler · 2013

Among 94 cannabis-dependent military veterans preparing for a quit attempt, those with PTSD reported significantly more coping-motivated cannabis use, more severe withdrawal symptoms, and stronger cravings related to compulsivity, emotionality, and anticipation. The links between PTSD and coping motives and between PTSD and craving remained significant even after controlling for concurrent cannabis, alcohol, and tobacco use, and co-occurring mood, anxiety, and substance use diagnoses.

Palmitoylethanolamide: from endogenous cannabimimetic substance to innovative medicine for the treatment of cannabis dependence.

Coppola, M · 2013

The authors proposed that PEA, a fatty acid amide with pharmacological similarities to THC, could serve as a treatment for cannabis dependence.

Sex differences in cannabinoid pharmacology: A reflection of differences in the endocannabinoid system?

Craft, Rebecca M. · 2013

Across studies, sex differences showed up in both species but with uneven strength.

Cannabidiol for the treatment of cannabis withdrawal syndrome: a case report.

Crippa, J A S · 2013

A 19-year-old heavy cannabis user experiencing withdrawal syndrome (increased anxiety, insomnia, loss of appetite, irritability, restlessness) was treated with cannabidiol (CBD) for 10 days.

The synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome.

Nacca, Nicholas · 2013

Two patients presented with withdrawal symptoms from prolonged use of synthetic cannabinoids.

An exploratory study of cannabis withdrawal among Indigenous Australian prison inmates: study protocol.

Rogerson, Bernadette · 2013

This study protocol addressed a critical gap: cannabis withdrawal has never been examined in Indigenous populations despite exceptionally high community cannabis use rates.

Reduction of dependence to cannabinoids by GLT-1 activating property of the beta-lactam antibiotic.

Ulugol, Ahmet · 2013

This paper presented a hypothesis rather than experimental results.

Quantifying the clinical significance of cannabis withdrawal

Allsop, David J. · 2012

People who felt that withdrawal was getting in the way of normal activities reported higher withdrawal severity, and those two measures moved together with a strong statistical signal.

Headaches related to psychoactive substance use.

Beckmann, Yeşim Yetimalar · 2012

Researchers surveyed 1,015 consecutively admitted substance users about headaches.

Withdrawal from THC during adolescence: sex differences in locomotor activity and anxiety.

Harte-Hargrove, Lauren C · 2012

Male and female rats received THC (2, 7.5, or 15 mg/kg) or vehicle during mid-adolescence (postnatal days 35-41).

Reversible and regionally selective downregulation of brain cannabinoid CB1 receptors in chronic daily cannabis smokers

Hirvonen, Jussi · 2012

Positron emission tomography showed lower availability of CB1 receptors in cortical regions among chronic daily cannabis smokers compared with non-using controls.

Characterizing smoking topography of cannabis in heavy users.

McClure, Erin A · 2012

Twenty heavy cannabis users had their smoking behavior objectively measured during periods of ad libitum use in an inpatient study.

A brain on cannabinoids: the role of dopamine release in reward seeking.

Oleson, Erik B · 2012

In animal models, cannabinoids activate the mesolimbic dopamine system, the same reward circuit engaged by other drugs of abuse.

Endocannabinoid regulation of acute and protracted nicotine withdrawal: effect of FAAH inhibition.

Cippitelli, Andrea · 2011

Rats made dependent on nicotine via transdermal patches for 7 days showed both physical and emotional withdrawal symptoms when patches were removed. Physical (somatic) withdrawal signs appeared at 16 hours and emotional (affective) signs at 34 hours after patch removal.

Antagonist-elicited cannabis withdrawal in humans.

Gorelick, David A · 2011

Ten male daily cannabis smokers received around-the-clock oral THC (40-120 mg/day increasing over 8 days) to standardize cannabis dependence in a closed research unit.

Blockade of endocannabinoid hydrolytic enzymes attenuates precipitated opioid withdrawal symptoms in mice.

Ramesh, Divya · 2011

Morphine-dependent mice challenged with naloxone displayed jumping, paw tremors, diarrhea, and weight loss.

Behavioral effects of fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibition on morphine withdrawal symptoms.

Shahidi, Siamak · 2011

Rats made dependent on morphine through 7 days of daily injections received URB597, a FAAH inhibitor that boosts anandamide levels, before naloxone-precipitated withdrawal.

Sleep disturbance and the effects of extended-release zolpidem during cannabis withdrawal.

Vandrey, Ryan · 2011

When participants stopped cannabis for three nights and took placebo at bedtime, objective sleep quality dropped.

Increased blood pressure after abrupt cessation of daily cannabis use.

Vandrey, Ryan · 2011

Thirteen daily cannabis users participated in an inpatient study alternating between ad libitum cannabis smoking and supervised abstinence.

delta(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol-dependent mice undergoing withdrawal display impaired spatial memory.

Wise, Laura E · 2011

Rats received the cannabinoid agonist WIN55,212-2 daily during late adolescence (postnatal days 45-60) and were tested at 24 hours, 10 days, 30 days, and 75 days after the last injection.

FAAH-/- mice display differential tolerance, dependence, and cannabinoid receptor adaptation after delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and anandamide administration.

Falenski, Katherine W · 2010

Repeated THC dosing shifted dose–response curves further to the right for classic cannabinoid effects in mice.

Anxiety-like effects of SR141716-precipitated delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol withdrawal in mice in the elevated plus-maze.

Huang, Peng · 2010

Male mice received THC (10 mg/kg) daily for 10 days.

Daily marijuana users with past alcohol problems increase alcohol consumption during marijuana abstinence.

Peters, Erica N · 2010

Twenty-eight daily marijuana users who were not trying to quit completed three phases: 8 days of normal use, 13 days of verified marijuana abstinence, and 7 days of return to normal use. Overall, marijuana abstinence did not produce a significant increase in alcohol consumption.

Precipitated withdrawal counters the adverse effects of subchronic cannabinoid administration on male rat sexual behavior.

Riebe, Caitlin J · 2010

Male rats received the potent CB1 agonist HU-210 daily for 10 days.

Altered architecture and functional consequences of the mesolimbic dopamine system in cannabis dependence.

Spiga, Saturnino · 2010

Researchers examined brain structure changes during cannabinoid withdrawal in rats treated with two different cannabinoid agonists (THC and CP55940). During both spontaneous and precipitated withdrawal, dopamine-producing neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) showed significant morphological shrinkage.

Rimonabant-induced Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol withdrawal in rhesus monkeys: discriminative stimulus effects and other withdrawal signs.

Stewart, Jennifer L · 2010

Monkeys receiving chronic THC were trained to discriminate the cannabinoid antagonist rimonabant (which precipitates withdrawal) from vehicle.

Hyperlocomotion and paw tremors are two highly quantifiable signs of SR141716-precipitated withdrawal from delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in C57BL/6 mice.

Huang, Peng · 2009

C57BL/6 mice received THC (25 mg/kg) or vehicle twice daily for 4.5 days.

Nicotine and Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol withdrawal induce Narp in the central nucleus of the amygdala.

Reti, Irving M · 2009

Researchers had previously found that the immediate early gene Narp (which encodes a protein that interacts with AMPA glutamate receptors) is induced in the central nucleus of the amygdala during opiate withdrawal. This study showed that Narp is also induced in the same brain region during withdrawal from both nicotine and THC. The central nucleus of the amygdala is known to play a key role in mediating aversive responses to drug withdrawal, responses that are thought to drive continued drug use. The finding that Narp induction is common across opiate, nicotine, and THC withdrawal suggests it is part of a shared transcriptional response to drug withdrawal rather than being specific to any single substance..

Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of "spice gold".

Zimmermann, Ulrich S · 2009

A 20-year-old patient smoked Spice Gold daily for 8 months, developing classic signs of dependence: tolerance with dose escalation to 3 grams per day, continuous drug craving, continued use despite cognitive impairment, and neglect of professional duties. On hospital days 4-7 after cessation, he developed withdrawal symptoms: inner restlessness, drug craving, nightmares, profuse sweating, nausea, tremor, headache, elevated blood pressure (180/90 mmHg), and tachycardia (125 bpm). The patient reported experiencing a similar syndrome during a previous involuntary abstinence period, which resolved when he resumed use. Urinary drug screens were negative, as standard tests did not detect synthetic cannabinoids.

Sleep disturbance in heavy marijuana users

Bolla, Karen I. · 2008

Across two consecutive lab nights immediately after stopping, heavy users slept less and spent less time in slow wave sleep than matched drug-free controls.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis: cyclical hyperemesis in association with chronic cannabis abuse

Allen, John H. · 2004

Nine closely followed patients with long-term heavy cannabis use had a repeating vomiting illness.

Spontaneous cannabinoid withdrawal produces a differential time-related responsiveness in cannabinoid CB1 receptor gene expression in the mouse brain.

Oliva, José M · 2004

When cannabinoid-tolerant mice stopped receiving the cannabinoid CP-55,940, they developed a time-dependent withdrawal syndrome peaking on day 1: motor activity increased 140%, rearings increased 170%, while grooming decreased 57%.

The time course and significance of cannabis withdrawal

Budney, Alan J. · 2003

After heavy users stopped, a consistent withdrawal pattern emerged across mood, sleep, and physical symptoms.

Reversal of cannabinoids (delta9-THC) by the benzoflavone moiety from methanol extract of Passiflora incarnata Linneaus in mice: a possible therapy for cannabinoid addiction.

Dhawan, Kamaldeep · 2002

Mice given THC (10 mg/kg twice daily for 6 days) along with a benzoflavone compound from Passiflora incarnata developed significantly less tolerance and dependence compared to mice receiving THC alone.

Functional Adaptation in the Brain Habenulo-Mesencephalic Pathway During Cannabinoid Withdrawal.

Aroni, Sonia · 2024

THC withdrawal produced a marked decrease in VTA dopamine neuron firing and burst activity.

New insight in psychotic cannabis withdrawal: case series and brief overview.

Ricci, Valerio · 2024

Four patients referred to a mental health department between 2019 and 2023 developed psychotic features specifically after abrupt cannabis cessation, representing a distinct clinical phenomenon from cannabis-induced psychosis during active use..

Cannabidiol attenuates the expression of conditioned place aversion induced by naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal through the activation of 5-HT1A receptors.

Souza, Adriana Jesus · 2023

CBD (5 and 20 mg/kg) prevented conditioned place aversion induced by naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal.

Does tobacco dependence worsen cannabis withdrawal in people with and without schizophrenia-spectrum disorders?

Yeap, Zac J S · 2023

Cannabis withdrawal severity was worse in tobacco-dependent individuals compared to non-tobacco-dependent individuals.