Cannabis Sex Differences Research

Adolescent cannabis use and psychological distress from 2013 to 2023: A population-based study in Ontario, Canada.

McDonald, André J · 2026

Distress rose from 10.7% to 27.4% while cannabis use declined from 23.1% to 17.6%.

Varenicline for cannabis use disorder: A randomized controlled trial.

McRae-Clark, Aimee L · 2026

Varenicline did not reduce cannabis use sessions overall during weeks 6-12.

Cannabis use among sexual minority adults: insights from recent U.S. nationally representative data.

Qin, Weisiyu Abraham · 2026

Among women, bisexual identity was linked to the highest odds of cannabis vaping (aOR=2.57) and non-vaping use (aOR=2.57).

Independent brain cortical signatures of risk for adolescent cannabis use and consequences of such use are moderated by sex.

Watts, Jeremy J · 2026

In years when adolescents used more cannabis than their personal average, cortical thickness was lower (p = 0.047).

Cannabis Legalization and Cannabis Use Disorder by Sex in Veterans Health Administration Patients, 2005-2019.

Wisell, Caroline G · 2026

CUD prevalence increased in both sexes across the study period.

Disparities in use modalities among adults who currently use cannabis, 2022-2023.

Diaby, Meman · 2025

Smoking was most common (77.3%), followed by edibles (37.3%), vaping (34.8%), dabbing (15.0%), topicals (5.9%), sublingual (4.5%), and pills (2.1%).

Cannabis Withdrawal and Psychiatric Intensive Care.

Malik, Aliyah · 2025

Among 52,088 psychiatric admissions in London over 16 years, cannabis users were 44% more likely than non-users to require psychiatric intensive care overall.

Directional associations between cannabis use and anxiety symptoms from late adolescence through young adulthood.

Davis, Jordan P · 2022

For the overall sample and men, greater cannabis use predicted greater subsequent increases in anxiety (substance-induced pathway).

A Meta-Analysis of fMRI Studies of Youth Cannabis Use: Alterations in Executive Control, Social Cognition/Emotion Processing, and Reward Processing in Cannabis Using Youth.

Hammond, Christopher J · 2022

Cannabis-using youth showed greater activation in the rostral medial prefrontal cortex during executive control tasks and decreased activation in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex and dorsal anterior cingulate during social cognition and emotion processing, compared to non-using peers..

Cannabis use in pregnancy and maternal and infant outcomes: A Canadian cross-jurisdictional population-based cohort study.

Luke, Sabrina · 2022

Prenatal cannabis use (prevalence ~2%) was associated with increased risks of spontaneous preterm birth (aOR 1.80), medically indicated preterm birth (aOR 1.94), very preterm birth (aOR 1.73), low birth weight (aOR 1.90), small-for-gestational age (aOR 1.21), major congenital anomalies (aOR 1.71), cesarean section (aOR 1.13), and gestational diabetes (aOR 1.32).

Guideline No. 425a: Cannabis Use Throughout Women's Lifespans - Part 1: Fertility, Contraception, Menopause, and Pelvic Pain.

Robert, Magali · 2022

The guideline addressed cannabis effects on hormonal regulation, reproductive health, sexual function, perimenopausal and menopausal symptoms, and chronic pelvic pain.

Associations of Suicidality Trends With Cannabis Use as a Function of Sex and Depression Status.

Han, Beth · 2021

Cannabis use disorder was associated with substantially higher suicidality regardless of depression status.

Demographic risk factors for co-occurring suicidality and cannabis use disorders: Findings from a nationally representative United States sample.

Kelly, Lourah M · 2021

Men had twice the odds of co-occurring suicidal ideation and CUD (AOR=2.06).

Role of sex on the relationship between sexual minority status and past 30-day marijuana use among high school students (YRBS, 2015-2019).

Mantey, Dale S · 2021

The association between sexual minority status and marijuana use differed significantly by sex.

The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: current insights.

Bonnet, Udo · 2017

The review synthesized evidence that regular cannabis use causes desensitization and downregulation of brain CB1 receptors, which begins reversing within the first 2 days of abstinence and normalizes within about 4 weeks.

The association between cannabis use and suicidality among men and women: A population-based longitudinal study.

Shalit, Nadav · 2016

Using data from over 30,000 participants followed over 3 years, researchers found strikingly different patterns between men and women in the cannabis-suicidality relationship. In men, cannabis use predicted the development of new suicidal ideation.

Sex-specific association between low oral doses of cannabidiol (CBD) and plasma concentration of anandamide (AEA), N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA) and N-oleoylethanolamine (OEA) in healthy occasional cannabis users.

Abboud, Anita · 2026

The endocannabinoid system doesn't just respond to cannabis—it produces its own cannabinoid-like molecules.

Anxiety sensitivity and cannabis-related problems among Hispanic/Latine adults: The roles of sex and cannabis use motives.

Buckner, Julia D · 2026

Among 520 Hispanic/Latine cannabis users, anxiety sensitivity predicted more cannabis problems via conformity motives for both sexes, but via coping motives for men and expansion motives for women — frequency was unaffected..

Clinical pain intensity is associated with greater cannabis demand among people who regularly use cannabis.

Bush, Nicholas J · 2026

Greater pain intensity predicted higher Omax (maximum spending), Pmax (maximum price), Intensity (consumption at zero cost), Breakpoint (price that stops use), and lower Elasticity (price sensitivity) for cannabis, with sex-moderated effects for women under responsibility conditions..

Effects of acute THC challenge on behavior and neuroinflammation in HIV-1 Tg26 mice vary based on HIV status, chronic THC history, and sex.

Ravula, Havilah P · 2026

Chronic THC history (90 days) led to tolerance across behavioral measures, reducing THC-induced hypothermia, pain relief, and sedation, especially in females.

Cannabinoid Use Among Adult Women: A Scoping Review.

Trice, Catharine · 2026

Of 270 studies, 80% addressed safety, 17% motivations for use, and 10% perceptions.

Endocannabinoid Modulation in Headache: Mechanisms, Models, and Translational Therapies.

Wen, Jie · 2026

The endocannabinoid system modulates trigeminovascular firing, CGRP release, neurogenic inflammation, cortical spreading depression, and glial activation after brain injury.

Regarding the pain of men: characteristics of fibromyalgia in male patients.

Bannon, Lian · 2025

Among 3,044 fibromyalgia patients, 48% of males received medical cannabis treatment compared to 34.6% of females.

Association of cannabis use with female infertility based on NHANES.

Chen, Chao · 2025

Former cannabis users had 2.04x odds of infertility vs never-users; current users showed no significant difference; among former users 18-35, those abstinent 3+ years had 2.94x odds; shorter abstinence showed no significant difference..

Association of cannabis abuse/dependence on risks of erectile dysfunction and testosterone deficiency using a large claims database analysis.

Davis, Ryan · 2025

Cannabis abuse/dependence was associated with a 3.99-fold increased risk of erectile dysfunction and 2.19-fold increased risk of testosterone deficiency within one year, based on a propensity-matched analysis of nearly 30,000 men per group..

Cannabis impacts female fertility as evidenced by an in vitro investigation and a case-control study.

Duval, Cyntia · 2025

In the clinical study, follicular fluid THC concentration was positively correlated with oocyte maturation, but THC-positive patients had significantly lower embryo euploid (chromosomally normal) rates than matched controls.

Cannabis use and binge eating among young adults: The role of depressive symptoms.

Elran-Barak, Roni · 2025

Female cannabis users had a 24% binge eating rate compared to 13% among non-users (p<0.001).

Patterns of substance use and initiation among LGBTQIAPN+ youth in Brazil: Evidence from a population-based cohort.

Figueiredo, Caio Petrus Monteiro · 2025

LGBTQ+ adolescents in Brazil had significantly higher lifetime prevalence of cannabis use (OR=1.94) and tobacco use (OR=1.66) compared to cisgender heterosexual peers.

Repeated footshock stress enhances cocaine self-administration in male and female rats: Role of the cannabinoid receptor 1.

Gaulden, Andrew D · 2025

Footshock stress increased cocaine self-administration in both sexes.

Sex-dependent effects of stress on aIC-NAc circuit neuroplasticity: Role of the endocannabinoid system.

Gauthier, Manon · 2025

Under basal conditions, males showed equal proportions of LTP and LTD in the insular cortex-to-NAc pathway, while females predominantly showed LTP.

Effects of legal-market cannabis and alcohol on verbal learning and memory.

Gowin, Joshua L · 2025

Sixty adults who regularly used both alcohol and cannabis completed two lab sessions: one with alcohol alone and one with alcohol plus legal-market cannabis.

Patterns of Cannabis Use among Women With HIV in the United States.

Haley, Danielle F · 2025

In the Women's Interagency HIV Study (2018-2019), 27% of 1,246 women with HIV used cannabis and 15% used daily.

Unravelling gender differences in cannabis cue-reactivity in individuals who use cannabis.

Kaag, A M · 2025

Women cannabis users showed blunted neural cue-reactivity in the right insula and putamen compared to male users, a pattern opposite to controls.

The Association Between Substance Use and Suicidality Among Women Veterans, 2015 to 2019: A Secondary Analysis of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

Kameg, Brayden · 2025

Women veterans had increased odds of suicidality compared to peers.

Gender differences in circumstances associated with cannabis use.

Martin, Erin L · 2025

Women scored higher on four of eight IDTS subscales related to negative affect: conflict with others, testing personal control, physical discomfort, and unpleasant emotions.

Sex differences in the acute effects of cannabis on human cognition: A systematic review.

Matheson, Justin · 2025

Of 29 studies meeting criteria, only 6 (20.7%) found statistical evidence of sex differences in acute cognitive effects, representing just 8 of 216 cognitive outcomes tested (3.7%).

Gender Differences in Cannabis as a Mediator Between Distress Factors and Non-Fatal Suicidal Behaviors.

Nayeem, Nawar · 2025

Cannabis use mediated 2.3% of the effect of depression on suicidal ideation in women versus 1.2% in men, and 1.7% versus 1.0% for suicide attempts.

Gender differences in non-fatal suicidal behaviors linked to concurrent use of cannabis and opioids.

Nayeem, Nawar · 2025

Cannabis and opioid co-use was associated with a smaller-than-expected (sub-additive) increase in non-fatal suicidal behaviors overall (interaction beta=-0.58, p<0.001) and especially in women (beta=-0.87, p<0.001).

The association between cannabis use and suicidal intensity in psychiatric inpatients.

Oladunjoye, Adeolu Funso · 2025

Cannabis use was associated with lower suicidal ideation intensity for females (p=.026) but not males (p=.525).

Alcohol use disorder, cannabis use disorder, and eating disorder symptoms among male and female college students.

Pedersen, Eric R · 2025

About one-third (32.4%) of the sample screened positive for an eating disorder.

Sex differences in endocannabinoid and inflammatory markers associated with posttraumatic stress disorder.

Rajasekera, Therese A · 2025

Among 88 PTSD patients and 85 matched controls, male PTSD patients had significantly decreased levels of AEA, arachidonic acid, and OEA compared to male controls and female subgroups.

Sex-specific responses to cannabis exposure: Implications for behavior and beyond.

Rogers, Sophia · 2025

This scoping review synthesized evidence on sex-specific behavioral responses to cannabis.

Effects of cannabis smoke and oral Δ9THC on cognition in young adult and aged rats.

Zequeira, Sabrina · 2025

Chronic oral THC enhanced prefrontal cortex-dependent working memory in aged rats of both sexes without affecting young adults.

Somatic and anxiety-like behaviors in male and female rats during withdrawal from the non-selective cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2.

Brewer, Abigail L · 2024

Females showed precipitated withdrawal at 3 mg/kg rimonabant while males required 10 mg/kg.

Prenatal THC exposure drives sex-specific alterations in spatial memory and hippocampal excitatory/inhibitory balance in adolescent rats.

Castelli, Valentina · 2024

Prenatal THC exposure caused sex-specific disruption in spatial memory retrieval and flexibility.

Sex Moderates Associations Between Dimensions of Emotion Dysregulation and Problematic Cannabis Use.

Cavalli, Jessica M · 2024

Male cannabis users reported greater emotion dysregulation across almost all dimensions.

Sex-specific behavioural, metabolic, and immunohistochemical changes after repeated administration of the synthetic cannabinoid AKB48 in mice.

Corli, Giorgia · 2024

First AKB48 injection impaired sensorimotor responses, temperature, analgesia, and breathing more in females than males.

The moderating role of sex in the relationship between cannabis use treatment admission profile and treatment processes and outcomes: A gender perspective.

Dacosta-Sánchez, Daniel · 2024

Sex moderated the relationship between number of children and treatment adherence: having more children predicted lower adherence specifically in females.

Greater vulnerability to cannabis dependence among heavy cannabis user French women.

Guillem, Eric · 2024

Among 342 heavy cannabis users, 83.2% were cannabis dependent.

Can the THC concentration predict the number of patients with cannabis-related diagnoses?

Manthey, Jakob · 2024

Using health insurance data from 2009-2021 and THC data from law enforcement, each one percentage point increase in median THC concentration predicted a higher proportion of cannabis users receiving an F12 diagnosis.

Effects of cannabis use on cigarette smoking cessation in LGBTQ+ individuals.

Pang, Raina D · 2024

While all participants reduced cigarette use during a quit attempt, the reduction was smaller among those with current cannabis use compared to non-users.

Investigating sex differences and age of onset in emotion regulation, executive functioning, and cannabis use in adolescents and young adults.

Wade, Natasha E · 2024

Greater past 6-month cannabis use was associated with poorer Emotional Stroop Congruent Accuracy (p=0.0004) and List Sorting Working Memory performance (p=0.02, marginally significant after correction).

Differences in Plasma Cannabidiol Concentrations in Women and Men: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Study.

Batinic, Ana · 2023

Among 62 hypertensive volunteers in a triple-blind placebo-controlled crossover study, females had significantly higher plasma CBD concentrations than males after receiving the same DehydraTECH2.0 CBD formulation.

Ecological investigation of the co-occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and cannabis use among community women experiencing intimate partner violence.

Newberger, Noam G · 2023

Externalizing behavior (OR 1.37) and dysphoric arousal (OR 1.27) PTSD symptom clusters were associated with cannabis use reported in the same survey period.

Cannabis and male sexual health: contemporary qualitative review and insight into perspectives of young men on the internet.

Shahinyan, Gary K · 2023

Literature review found negative effects of cannabis on semen parameters with varying effects on erectile function and hormone levels.

Sex differences in acute cannabis effects revisited: Results from two randomized, controlled trials.

Arkell, Thomas R · 2022

After controlling for BMI and plasma THC, relatively few sex differences emerged.

Differences in alcohol and cannabis use amongst substance use disorder patients with and without comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Coetzee, Corné · 2022

The SUD+ADHD group showed increased cannabis consumption compared to the SUD-only group.

Changes in brain structure and function following chronic exposure to inhaled vaporised cannabis during periadolescence in female and male mice: A multimodal MRI study.

Coleman, James R · 2022

Female mice showed altered fractional anisotropy and apparent diffusion coefficient (measures of brain microstructure) in forebrain and hindbrain.

A survey of medical cannabis use during perimenopause and postmenopause.

Dahlgren, M Kathryn · 2022

86.1% reported current cannabis use and 78.7% used it for menopause symptoms.

Cannabis and Cannabinoids in Reproduction and Fertility: Where We Stand.

Fonseca, Bruno M · 2022

THC indirectly decreases GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus, leading to disruptions in multiple reproductive hormones.

Chronic exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol impacts testicular volume and male reproductive health in rhesus macaques.

Hedges, Jason C · 2022

For each 1 mg/7 kg/day increase in THC dose, bilateral testicular volume decreased by 11.8 cm3.

Sex-specific mechanisms of tolerance for the cannabinoid agonists CP55,940 and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC).

Henderson-Redmond, Angela N · 2022

The S426A/S430A mutation, which blocks CB1 receptor desensitization via the GRK/beta-arrestin2 pathway, conferred partial resistance to THC tolerance in male mice but did not alter tolerance in female mice.

In utero exposure to cannabidiol disrupts select early-life behaviors in a sex-specific manner.

Iezzi, Daniela · 2022

Male pups from CBD-treated dams gained more weight than controls.

Changes in striatal dopamine release, sleep, and behavior during spontaneous Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol abstinence in male and female mice.

Kesner, Andrew J · 2022

THC withdrawal produced altered striatal dopamine release, sleep disturbances that mimic clinical observations (disrupted sleep architecture), and affect-related behavioral changes.

Persistent sexually dimorphic effects of adolescent THC exposure on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and episodic memory in rodents.

Le, Aliza A · 2022

Adolescent THC exposure produced selective, lasting deficits in synaptic plasticity in two hippocampal pathways, primarily in females.

Medical Cannabis for Gynecologic Pain Conditions: A Systematic Review.

Liang, Angela L · 2022

Among 16 included studies, 13-27% of women used cannabis for gynecologic pain.

Impact of cannabinoids on pregnancy, reproductive health, and offspring outcomes.

Lo, Jamie O · 2022

THC crosses the placenta and has been detected in breast milk.

The effects of cannabis and cannabinoids on the endocrine system.

Meah, Farah · 2022

Key endocrine effects include: reduced female fertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes, reduced sperm counts and function, lower thyroid hormone levels with acute use, blunted stress response with chronic use, increased prediabetes risk but paradoxically lower diabetes risk, suggested improvement in HDL and triglycerides, and modest increase in fracture risk..

Cannabidiol for the Management of Endometriosis and Chronic Pelvic Pain.

Mistry, Megha · 2022

Of 264 articles screened, 41 were included.

The moderating role of sex and self-, teacher-, and father-reported ADHD hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms, on the association between early adolescent internalizing symptoms and substance use.

Pocuca, Nina · 2022

A significant three-way interaction between internalizing symptoms, ADHD hyperactivity-impulsivity, and sex was found for cigarette use (BF=48.40) and supported for cannabis use (BF=3.54-9.08).

Gender Differences in Dual Diagnoses Associated with Cannabis Use: A Review.

Prieto-Arenas, Laura · 2022

Studies consistently show gender differences in cannabis-associated psychiatric symptoms, but the direction varies across studies and conditions.

Medical Marijuana Laws, Marijuana Use, and Opioid-Related Outcomes among Women in the United States.

Ali, Mir M · 2021

Medical marijuana laws were not associated with opioid misuse, initiation, or OUD among all women, pregnant women, or parenting women.

Age- and Sex-Related Cortical Gray Matter Volume Differences in Adolescent Cannabis Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Voxel-Based Morphometry Studies.

Allick, Aliyah · 2021

No regions showed significant gray matter volume differences between 357 cannabis-using and 404 typically developing youth.

Sex differences in cannabis forms and exposure reasons in cannabis-related poison control center cases aged 50.

Choi, Namkee G · 2021

Women over 50 had 1.93 times greater odds of calling about therapeutic errors/adverse reactions compared to intentional misuse.

Sex Differences in Comorbidity Between Substance Use and Mental Health in Adolescents: Two Sides of the Same Coin.

Fernández-Artamendi, Sergio · 2021

Girls presented significantly more mental health problems and higher prevalence of comorbidity between substance use and mental health disorders.

Recreational Cannabis Use Before and After Legalization in Women With Pelvic Pain.

Geoffrion, Roxana · 2021

14.9% of all patients were current cannabis users.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of sex differences in cannabis use disorder amongst people with comorbid mental illness.

Kozak, Karolina · 2021

In the CUD-only group, males were twice as likely as females to have CUD (OR=2.0).

Same-day use of cigarettes, alcohol, and cannabis among sexual minority and heterosexual young adult smokers.

Nguyen, Nhung · 2021

Sexual minority young adults had significantly greater odds of same-day cigarette and cannabis use (AOR 2.05, 95% CI 1.04-4.01) and all three substances combined (AOR 2.79, 95% CI 1.51-5.14) compared to heterosexuals.

Sex Differences in Neuropsychological Functioning are Domain-Specific in Adolescent and Young Adult Regular Cannabis Users.

Savulich, George · 2021

Male cannabis users had poorer visual recognition memory while female users showed worse attention and executive functioning (medium to large effect sizes), with earlier initiation and heavier use more strongly linked to attention deficits in females and memory/learning deficits in males..

The Effect of Marijuana on the Incidence and Evolution of Male Infertility: A Systematic Review.

Srinivasan, Mirra · 2021

Across 15 eligible studies, marijuana use was associated with reduced sperm count, concentration, motility, morphology, capacitation, and viability.

VOICES: An efficacious trauma-informed, gender-responsive cannabis use intervention for justice and school-referred girls with lifetime substance use history.

Tolou-Shams, Marina · 2021

Girls randomized to VOICES reported significantly less cannabis use over 9-month follow-up compared to the control condition (p<0.01).

Comparison between a morocco and a native-born population, in a sample of first episode psychosis.

Arranz, Sara · 2020

Moroccan patients (28.9% of sample) were more likely to be male, had fewer years of education, and lower functionality scores.

Cannabis use disorder and the future risk of cardiovascular disease in parous women: a longitudinal cohort study.

Auger, Nathalie · 2020

Women with cannabis use disorders had 1.48 times the risk of cardiovascular hospitalization (95% CI 1.27-1.72).

Understanding sex differences in long-term outcomes after a first episode of psychosis.

Ayesa-Arriola, Rosa · 2020

At first contact, women were older at onset, had higher premorbid adjustment and IQ, were more often employed and living independently.

Cannabis Use and Internalizing/Externalizing Symptoms in Youth: A Canadian Population-Based Study.

Girgis, Joseph · 2020

Frequent cannabis use was associated with elevated externalizing symptoms (OR 2.17 in males, 5.13 in females) and internalizing symptoms (OR 2.07 in males, 3.40 in females).

Sex differences in driving under the influence of cannabis: The role of medical and recreational cannabis use.

Lloyd, Shawnta L · 2020

Male cannabis users who combined medical and recreational use had the highest probability of DUIC (40%), while female medical-only users had the lowest (20%).

Depressive symptoms and cannabis use in a placebo-controlled trial of N-Acetylcysteine for adult cannabis use disorder.

Tomko, Rachel L · 2020

N-acetylcysteine did not reduce depressive symptoms compared to placebo.

Self-management strategies amongst Australian women with endometriosis: a national online survey.

Armour, Mike · 2019

Self-management was used by 76% of women with endometriosis.

Cannabis Use Preferences and Decision-making Among a Cross-sectional Cohort of Medical Cannabis Patients with Chronic Pain.

Boehnke, Kevin F · 2019

76.5% used cannabis daily, 93.4% used 2+ administration routes, and 72.5% used 3+ routes.

What Every Pediatric Gynecologist Should Know About Marijuana Use in Adolescents.

Chadi, Nicholas · 2019

Despite limited research specifically on gynecological conditions, the many risks of adolescent marijuana use include negative effects on developing brains, adverse reproductive outcomes (menstrual irregularities, pregnancy complications), risky sexual behavior, and mental health problems.

Descriptive Psychopathology of the Acute Effects of Intravenous Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Administration in Humans.

Colizzi, Marco · 2019

In the 20 minutes after THC, 94% experienced at least mild symptoms (19% moderate-severe).

Tobacco and cannabis use in college students are predicted by sex-dimorphic interactions between MAOA genotype and child abuse.

Fite, Paula J · 2019

In female students, high-activity MAOA alleles combined with physical and emotional abuse predicted lifetime tobacco and cannabis use.

Sex Differences in the Association Between Cannabis Use and Suicidal Ideation and Attempts, Depression, and Psychological Distress Among Canadians.

Halladay, Jillian E · 2019

Significant sex differences were found for cannabis use and suicidal thoughts/attempts and psychological distress, but not for major depressive episodes.

Developmental pathways of adolescent cannabis use: Risk factors, outcomes and sex-specific differences.

Hawes, Samuel W · 2019

Three cannabis use trajectories were identified: low (74%), chronic (12%), and escalating (14%).

Cannabis and Male Fertility: A Systematic Review.

Payne, Kelly S · 2019

Cannabis was associated with reduced sperm count and concentration, abnormal morphology, reduced motility and viability, and inhibited capacitation and fertilizing capacity.

Relationship Between Cannabis Use and Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Pizzol, Damiano · 2019

Across 3,395 men (1,035 cannabis users, 2,360 controls), the overall ED prevalence was 69.1% in cannabis users versus 34.7% in controls.

Sex Differences in the Association Between School Experiences and Marijuana Use Among African American Adolescents.

Vidourek, Rebecca A · 2019

For females, the strongest risk factors were negative school feelings (OR 2.72), finding courses uninteresting (OR 2.70), and poor grades (OR 2.52).

Sex Differences in Prevalence of Emergency Department Patient Substance Use.

Cannon, Robert D · 2018

Researchers analyzed 10,511 emergency department visits across three Pennsylvania hospitals over 18 months where the final diagnosis involved substance use.

Adult Cellular Neuroadaptations Induced by Adolescent THC Exposure in Female Rats Are Rescued by Enhancing Anandamide Signaling.

Cuccurazzu, Bruna · 2018

Female rats exposed to THC during adolescence developed depressive-like behaviors and measurable brain changes in adulthood.

Adverse Effects of Cannabis on Male Reproduction.

Hsiao, Philip · 2018

Researchers reviewed the effects of cannabis on clinical markers of male fertility and the endocannabinoid system's role in reproductive function. The endocannabinoid system plays important roles in sex hormone production, sperm production (spermatogenesis), and sperm function.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and arrest history: Differential association of clinical characteristics by sex.

Kolla, Nathan J · 2018

Researchers surveyed 5,196 Ontario adults to examine whether ADHD predicted arrest history after controlling for other criminogenic factors. In the combined sample, conduct disorder symptoms, problematic alcohol use, and problematic cannabis use all predicted arrest history.

Cannabis Withdrawal: A Review of Neurobiological Mechanisms and Sex Differences.

Schlienz, Nicolas J · 2017

The review synthesized preclinical and clinical research on cannabis withdrawal, identifying several key findings. Long-term cannabis use downregulates CB1 receptors throughout the brain.

Gender differences among treatment-seeking adults with cannabis use disorder: Clinical profiles of women and men enrolled in the achieving cannabis cessation-evaluating N-acetylcysteine treatment (ACCENT) study.

Sherman, Brian J · 2017

Comparing 86 women and 216 men entering a multi-site cannabis cessation trial, women presented with a more clinically complex picture despite using cannabis at similar rates and quantities. Women reported significantly greater withdrawal intensity (p = 0.001) and negative impact of withdrawal (p = 0.001), driven primarily by physiological and mood symptoms.

Association between cannabis use and methadone maintenance treatment outcomes: an investigation into sex differences.

Zielinski, Laura · 2017

Researchers studied 414 men and 363 women receiving methadone maintenance treatment for opioid use disorder across multiple clinics in Ontario, Canada.

Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptom profiles and concurrent problems with alcohol and cannabis: sex differences in a representative, population survey.

Kolla, Nathan J · 2016

ADHD and substance misuse frequently co-occur, but this study asked whether specific ADHD symptom profiles (hyperactivity, inattention, impulsivity) predicted substance problems differently in men versus women. After controlling for age, education, and other psychiatric symptoms, the patterns were strikingly sex-specific: In men: hyperactive symptoms were linked to problematic alcohol use, and both hyperactive and impulsive symptoms were linked to problematic cannabis use. In women: inattentive symptoms were the predictor for both problematic alcohol and cannabis use, while hyperactivity and impulsivity were not significant. Across all models, externalizing behavior (conduct problems, antisocial behavior) was the strongest overall predictor, and younger age was consistently associated with higher risk..

Antimüllerian hormone in relation to tobacco and marijuana use and sources of indoor heating/cooking.

White, Alexandra J · 2016

Researchers examined whether exposure to combustion products from tobacco, marijuana, and indoor heating sources affected antimullerian hormone (AMH) levels, a biomarker of ovarian reserve (the number of remaining eggs). Heavy tobacco smoking (20+ cigarettes/day) was associated with a 56.2% reduction in AMH levels compared to nonsmokers.

Marijuana, phytocannabinoids, the endocannabinoid system, and male fertility.

du Plessis, Stefan S · 2015

This review compiled evidence on how cannabis affects male reproductive function through the endocannabinoid system (ECS).

The manifold actions of endocannabinoids on female and male reproductive events.

Bari, Monica · 2011

The review traced the role of endocannabinoids in reproductive biology across the evolutionary spectrum from invertebrates to mammals. In females, chronic THC exposure was found to disrupt the menstrual cycle, suppress egg development (oogenesis), and impair embryo implantation and development.

Effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the primary psychoactive cannabinoid in marijuana, on human sperm function in vitro.

Whan, Lynne B · 2006

Researchers exposed human sperm from 78 men to THC at concentrations equivalent to therapeutic (0.032 microM), moderate recreational (0.32 microM), and heavy recreational (4.8 microM) plasma levels for 3 hours. In the best-quality sperm fraction (90% density), progressive motility decreased by 2-21% dose-dependently (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001).

Cannabis use and age at onset of schizophrenia.

Veen, Natalie D · 2004

Researchers conducted a population-based, first-contact incidence study in The Hague, Netherlands, examining 133 schizophrenia patients.

Substance dependence and other psychiatric disorders among drug dependent subjects: race and gender correlates.

Compton, W M · 2000

Researchers interviewed drug-dependent individuals in treatment using a structured diagnostic tool.

Adolescent cannabinoid vapour exposure sex-dependently alters the relationship between vulnerability traits and ethanol self-administration and modifies naltrexone actions on ethanol intake in rats.

Acosta-Vargas, Jairo S · 2026

Adolescent cannabinoid vapor exposure didn't increase overall ethanol self-administration but sex-dependently altered correlations between vulnerability traits and drinking behavior, and increased naltrexone's effectiveness in THC-exposed rats..

Impact of prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure on mouse brain development: a fetal-to-adulthood magnetic resonance imaging study.

Cupo, Lani · 2026

Using MRI brain scans at nine timepoints from gestation through adulthood, researchers tracked what happened to mouse brains after prenatal THC exposure.

Tolerance but No Spontaneous Withdrawal Following Repeated THC Injections in Male and Female Rats.

Hickey, Christa M · 2026

Researchers injected male and female rats with THC (3 mg/kg, twice daily) or vehicle for seven days, then abruptly stopped and monitored for withdrawal symptoms over five days using voluntary home cage wheel running — chosen as a sensitive, objective, and continuous measure. On day 1, THC profoundly decreased wheel running in both sexes compared to vehicle-treated rats — confirming the drug's acute sedating effects.

Acute and chronic cannabis vapor exposure produces immediate and delayed impacts on phases of fear learning in a sex specific manner.

Lightfoot, Savannah H M · 2026

Acute cannabis vapor before conditioning had no immediate effect on fear acquisition but impaired fear recall in females 24 hours later and prevented spontaneous recovery of fear in both sexes at two weeks.

Sex and dose-dependent effects of cannabidiol on cocaine consumption in mice.

Llerena, Veronika · 2026

In female mice, 10 mg/kg CBD attenuated cocaine self-administration acquisition by altering reward and cognitive markers in the mesocorticolimbic pathway.

A Scoping Systematic Review of Cannabis Use in Endometriosis.

McLaren, Kindha · 2026

Pain indication: 57.3-95.5%.

High doses of orally administered cannabigerol produce deficits in sustained attention in female rats.

Moore, Catherine F · 2026

CBG at 300-600 mg/kg impaired sustained attention in female rats but not males.

Sex-dependent effects of ultra-low-dose-THC preventive treatment on neuroinflammation and cognitive decline in 5xFAD mice.

Nitzan, Keren · 2026

ULD-THC attenuated AD-related cognitive decline in both sexes.

The effects of chronic cannabidiol administration on brain pathology and behavioral deficits found in the tau P301s-line PS19 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Nixon, Abigail G · 2026

CBD did not improve cognitive or motor behavior and did not restore hippocampal volume.

Melatonin mitigates hormonal toxicity in cannabis-treated female Wistar rats: involvement of cannabinoid receptor.

Oluwasola, A · 2026

Cannabis extract significantly altered levels of GnRH, FSH, LH, estradiol, progesterone, and prolactin in female rats.

Association between marijuana use and erectile dysfunction in a sample of sexual minority men: a cross-sectional analysis.

Otieno, Marion · 2026

In a cross-sectional survey of 549 sexual minority men, marijuana users had 1.83 times the odds of reporting erectile dysfunction compared to non-users (95% CI: 1.23-2.74) after adjusting for confounders.

Effects of chronic mild stress and CB1 receptor activation on hippocampal-dependent fear conditioning in female adolescent rats.

Reich, Christian G · 2026

Chronic mild stress enhanced trace fear conditioning (episodic fear memories) in adolescent female rats.

Cannabis and Endometriosis: When Is an Adverse Effect Not Adverse?

Sinclair, Justin · 2026

Among endometriosis patients using cannabis for symptom management, 32% experienced side effects, consistent with published literature.

Sexually Dimorphic Effects of a Single Neonatal Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure on Neuronal Dendritic Morphology and Cognitive Functions in Rats.

Wadhwa, Meetu · 2026

Rat pups received a single injection of THC (5 mg/kg) or vehicle at postnatal day 3 — a period corresponding to late pregnancy/early postnatal brain development in humans.

Cannflavin B ameliorates behavioural and neuronal systems alterations in adolescent rats exposed to prenatal valproic acid.

Williams, Olivia O F · 2026

Cannflavin B (0.2 mg/kg) was well tolerated and ameliorated most VPA-induced changes.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) inhibit androgen biosynthesis in H295R cells.

Zufferey, Fanny · 2026

THC and CBD both reduced DHEA, androstenedione, and testosterone production in H295R cells dose-dependently.

Beyond the high: exploring socioecological influences on cannabis use in older women with and without HIV.

Bobitt, Julie · 2025

Both groups used cannabis for psychological distress, pain, sleep, and reducing other substance use.

Does cyber dating abuse victimization predict next-day alcohol and cannabis use among college students?

Brem, Meagan J · 2025

Among men, experiencing cyber dating abuse victimization predicted a 7.34-fold increase in odds of next-day cannabis use (p < .001).

Divergent outcomes of delta 9 - tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in adolescence on mesocortical dopamine and cognitive development in male and female mice.

Capolicchio, Tanya · 2025

In males, adolescent THC reduced dopamine axon volume in the medial prefrontal cortex and reduced presynaptic sites, while increasing dopamine innervation in the orbitofrontal cortex, suggesting axons were rerouted.

Safety assessment on CBD-rich hemp extract in sub-chronic cross-sex study with rats.

Dehner, Jan · 2025

No adverse effects on organ weight, body weight, behavior, locomotion, food intake, or mortality were observed at any dose (0.5-35 mg/kg/day).

Prenatal Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure Induces Transcriptional Alterations in Dopaminergic System with Associated Electrophysiological Dysregulation in the Prefrontal Cortex of Adolescent Rats.

Di Bartolomeo, Martina · 2025

Prenatal cannabis exposure increased mRNA levels of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in the prefrontal cortex, with a particularly strong effect on D2 in males.

Event-Level Differences in Quantity, Frequency, and Consequences of Cannabis Use by Modes of Use Among Sexual Minority Women and Gender Diverse Individuals.

Dyar, Christina · 2025

People who used edibles infrequently experienced more negative consequences from edibles compared to smoking, while frequent edible users did not show this difference..

Patterns of medicinal cannabis prescriptions in diverse patient populations: a retrospective analysis.

Edni, Omer · 2025

Patients with gastrointestinal conditions were prescribed the highest mean monthly cannabis dose (22.26g), while male patients received significantly higher doses (25.48g vs 17.32g) and higher THC content (14% vs 11.39%) compared to females..

Cannabidiol attenuates behavioral and electrophysiological changes in the MAM model of schizophrenia in male and female rats.

Fabris, Débora · 2025

Both male and female MAM rats showed increased VTA dopamine neuron population activity, which was reversed by CBD (60 mg/kg) in both sexes.

Sex-Dependent Effects of MAOA Genotypes on the Relations Between Childhood Sexual Abuse, Aggression, and Cannabis Use in Emerging Adults.

Fite, Paula J · 2025

Among 498 emerging adults, males with the low-activity MAOA gene variant (MAOA-L) who experienced childhood sexual abuse and used cannabis reported using it specifically for coping at higher rates than other groups.

Assessment of addiction behavior and spermatogenesis in glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor-treated cannabis-addicted rats: An experimental study.

Laleh, Rozhina · 2025

Cannabis-addicted rats showed increased anxiety, reduced germ cells, smaller testes/epididymis, altered sperm morphology, and increased DNA damage.

Astroglial CB1 Reveal Sex-Specific Synaptic Effects of Amphetamine.

Mariani, Yamuna · 2025

Amphetamine impaired astroglial CB1 receptor-dependent synaptic plasticity in the nucleus accumbens of male mice but not females.

Exploring perceived gender norms about cannabis among treatment-seeking adults in the era of cannabis legalization in Canada: A qualitative analysis.

Matheson, Justin · 2025

Three themes emerged: (1) Masculine Dominance of Cannabis Use: recreational smoking is socially constructed as a masculine behavior; (2) Cannabis Use as Deviation from Femininity: women and gender-diverse people face extra stigma and are framed as inauthentic users; (3) Rejecting and Reconfiguring Gender Norms: legalization may be catalyzing challenges to masculine dominance by increasing visibility of women using cannabis..

The role of cannabinoid agonists and antagonists on folliculogenesis and evolutionary events in the mouse ovary.

Mirzaie, Vida · 2025

CB2 receptor blocking increased primary, preantral, and antral follicles along with ovarian volume, weight, and estrogen levels.

Effects of sex and pre-exposure on Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) vapor self-administration in rats.

Moore, Catherine F · 2025

Among 96 rats, both males and females voluntarily self-administered THC vapor over several months.

Cannabis use across the menstrual cycle: The impact of negative affect and cannabis use motives.

Morris, Paige E · 2025

Among 40 normally cycling women tracked for 65 days, cannabis use was more frequent during the premenstrual phase.

Cannabis for female orgasmic disorder/difficulty: a systematic review.

Mulvehill, Suzanne · 2025

All 9 studies examining cannabis use before sexual activity reported improvements in female orgasm function, including increases in frequency, ease, intensity, quality, and multiorgasmic capacity.

Exogenous Administration of Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Affects Adult Hippocampal Neurotransmission in Female Wistar Rats.

Neves, Ana M · 2025

In the hippocampus of ovariectomized female rats, THC increased cholinergic receptor (CHRNA7), glutamate transporter (VGLUT), and GABA receptor expression when estrogen was absent, but decreased these same markers when estrogen was present.

Sex- and age-specific sensitivities of the endocannabinoid system in Alzheimer's disease revealed by PET imaging with [18F]FMPEP-d 2 and [18F]MAGL-2102.

Pees, Anna · 2025

PET imaging revealed dynamic changes in cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and MAGL enzyme availability across Alzheimer's disease progression.

Age- and sex-dependent participation of the endocannabinoid system in locomotion and risk assessment of an ADHD rat model.

Penna, Daniel Bussinger de Souza · 2025

During adolescence, cannabinoid receptor activation aggravated hyperactivity and risky behaviors in ADHD model rats, with more pronounced effects in females.

Timing matters: modeling the effects of gestational cannabis exposure on social behavior and microglia in the developing amygdala.

Pham, Aidan L · 2025

Postnatal THC exposure (modeling late pregnancy) produced sex-specific changes in microglial phagocytosis during brain development and altered social behavior during the juvenile period.

Prophylactic efficacy of cannabidiol and sodium nitroprusside in a ketamine-model of schizophrenia: sex-dependent effects on positive-like and cognitive impairments.

Prado, Daniel B A · 2025

Rats pretreated with CBD and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) during brain development (postnatal days 12-32) and later challenged with ketamine showed sex-dependent responses.

The impact of oral cannabis consumption during pregnancy on maternal spiral artery remodelling, fetal growth and offspring behaviour in mice.

Ritchie, Tyrah M · 2025

Oral CBD and THC (20 mg/kg) from early to mid-gestation both impaired maternal spiral artery remodeling and fetal growth.

Cannabidiol Effects on Depressive-like Behavior and Neuroinflammation in Female Rats Exposed to High-Fat Diet and Unpredictable Chronic Mild Stress.

Sabbag, Tal · 2025

Female rats exposed to both a high-fat diet (2 weeks) and chronic unpredictable mild stress (4 weeks) received CBD (10 mg/kg) during the final 2 weeks.

Sex differences in the effects of maternal voluntary oral Cannabis consumption on the metabolic outcomes of high-fat diet in adult offspring.

Sallam, Nada A · 2025

Pregnant mice consumed cannabis extract (5 mg/kg THC daily) from early gestation through postnatal day 10.

Sex-related differences in cannabidiol's antinociceptive efficacy in a trigeminal neuralgia rodent model.

Vivanco-Estela, Airam · 2025

CBD demonstrated potent antinociceptive effects in both male and female rats with trigeminal neuralgia, without affecting locomotor activity.

Neonatal Cannabidiol Exposure Impairs Spatial Memory and Disrupts Neuronal Dendritic Morphology in Young Adult Rats.

Wadhwa, Meetu · 2025

Neonatal CBD exposure (50 mg/kg on postnatal days 1, 3, 5) caused decreased dendritic length and spine density in both cortical and hippocampal neurons in both sexes, with reduced dendritic arborization on Sholl analysis.

Mice lacking the endocannabinoid-synthesizing enzyme NAPE-PLD exhibit sex-dependent dysregulations in responsiveness to oxycodone and a natural reward.

Woodward, Taylor J · 2025

NAPE-PLD knockout mice displayed sex-dependent dysregulations in opioid (oxycodone) reward responsiveness and natural reward processing, revealing endocannabinoid-opioid interactions that differ between males and females..

Sex-specific maladaptive responses to acute stress upon in utero THC exposure are mediated by dopamine.

Valeria, Serra · 2024

Only male offspring prenatally exposed to THC showed a compromised balance of stress hormone receptors (mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid) in the ventral tegmental area, alongside stress-induced disruption of sensorimotor gating (PPI).

Alcohol and cannabinoid binges and daily exposure to nicotine in adolescent/young adult rats induce sex-dependent long-term appetitive instrumental learning impairment.

Abela, Norbert · 2023

Female rats showed impaired food-reward learning on both easy (FR1) and harder (FR2) tasks, while males showed impairment only on the harder FR2 task.

Sexually Dimorphic Adolescent Trajectories of Prefrontal Endocannabinoid Synaptic Plasticity Equalize in Adulthood, Reflected by Endocannabinoid System Gene Expression.

Bernabeu, Axel · 2023

Endocannabinoid-mediated long-term depression (eCB-LTD) was present in juvenile female rats but only appeared at puberty in males.

Behavioral, biochemical and histopathological toxic profiles induced by sub-chronic cannabimimetic WIN55, 212-2 administration in mice.

Omran, Ghada A · 2023

WIN55,212-2 produced dose-dependent anxiogenic effects and reduced locomotor activity, with female mice less compromised than males.

Mechanisms of cannabinoid tolerance.

Piscura, Mary K · 2023

Anyone who uses cannabis regularly knows tolerance is real: the same dose produces weaker effects over time.

The different role of G-protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) in the interaction effects of marijuana and estradiol on spatial learning and memory at different ages.

Chahkandi, Mohadeseh · 2022

Marijuana alone improved spatial learning in both young and old female rats.

Cannabidiol impairs fear memory reconsolidation in female rats through dorsal hippocampus CB1 but not CB2 receptor interaction.

Franzen, Jaqueline M · 2022

Systemic CBD reduced freezing behavior for over a week in female rats when given during the reconsolidation window (within 6 hours of memory reactivation).

Motor-like Tics are Mediated by CB2 Cannabinoid Receptor-dependent and Independent Mechanisms Associated with Age and Sex.

Gorberg, Victoria · 2022

CB2 knockout mice showed higher frequencies of repetitive behaviors.

Effects of synthetic (JWH-018) cannabinoids treatment on spermatogenesis and sperm function.

Mutluay, Duygu · 2022

JWH-018 (0.3 mg/kg for 9 days) caused significantly decreased sperm concentration, motility, and membrane integrity, reduced testosterone, increased abnormal sperm morphology, and seminiferous tubule degeneration.

Prenatal THC Exposure Induces Sex-Dependent Neuropsychiatric Endophenotypes in Offspring and Long-Term Disruptions in Fatty-Acid Signaling Pathways Directly in the Mesolimbic Circuitry.

Sarikahya, Mohammed H · 2022

Prenatal THC exposure induced lasting behavioral and neuronal changes in male and female rat offspring resembling neuropsychiatric conditions, with profound disruption of fatty acid pathways in the developing brain..

Cannabis and metformin on diabetic male Wistar rat sperm and reproductive organ parameters.

van Losenoord, Wynand · 2022

Cannabis induced a significant concentration-dependent decrease in sperm motility at 5 mg/kg THC.

Behavioral and Molecular Responses to Exogenous Cannabinoids During Pentylenetetrazol-Induced Convulsions in Male and Female Rats.

Zirotti Rosenberg, Antonella · 2022

WIN prevented convulsions of medium severity in both female and male rats.

Chronic adolescent exposure to cannabis in mice leads to sex-biased changes in gene expression networks across brain regions.

Zuo, Yanning · 2022

THC-treated mice showed memory and social behavior changes in late adolescence.

Use of Cannabis for Self-Management of Chronic Pelvic Pain.

Carrubba, Aakriti R · 2021

23% of chronic pelvic pain patients used cannabis, with 72% using at least weekly.

Sex Differences in Tolerance to Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Mice With Cisplatin-Evoked Chronic Neuropathic Pain.

Henderson-Redmond, Angela N · 2021

Female mice developed tolerance to the anti-allodynic (pain-relieving) effects of both 6 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg THC faster than males.

Sex-dependent pharmacological profiles of the synthetic cannabinoid MMB-Fubinaca.

Oliveira da Cruz, José F · 2021

MMB-Fubinaca activated CB1 receptors with much greater potency than the standard cannabinoid agonist WIN55,512-2 in both mouse and human brain tissue.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of aerosolized ("vaped") THC in adolescent male and female rats.

Ruiz, C M · 2021

Female adolescent rats had higher 11-OH-THC levels than males in blood and brain after vaped THC exposure.

Female but not male rats show biphasic effects of low doses of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on anxiety: can cannabidiol interfere with these effects?

Salviato, Beatriz Zanutto · 2021

This study revealed a striking sex difference that most cannabis research has missed by testing only males.

Brain imaging of cannabinoid type I (CB1 ) receptors in women with cannabis use disorder and male and female healthy controls.

Spindle, Tory R · 2021

Females with CUD (n=10) showed significantly lower CB1 receptor availability than female healthy controls (n=10) in the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate, and insula.

Cannabis Use and Brain Volume in Adolescent and Young Adult Cannabis Users: Effects Moderated by Sex and Aerobic Fitness.

Sullivan, Ryan M · 2021

No overall brain volume differences were found between cannabis users and controls, but sex-by-cannabis interactions revealed that female users had greater frontal and temporal volumes while male users had less volume compared to same-sex controls.

Sex, species and age: Effects of rodent demographics on the pharmacology of ∆9-tetrahydrocanabinol.

Wiley, Jenny L · 2021

11-OH-THC showed 7- to 31-fold greater potency than THC for catalepsy and hypothermia in mice and 7- to 9-fold greater potency in drug discrimination.

Endocannabinoid genetic variation enhances vulnerability to THC reward in adolescent female mice.

Burgdorf, Caitlin E · 2020

Adolescent female FAAHC/A mice (but not males) showed enhanced mesolimbic dopamine circuitry from VTA to nucleus accumbens, altered CB1 receptor levels at inhibitory and excitatory terminals in the VTA, and increased THC conditioned place preference that persisted into adulthood..

Prenatal cannabinoid exposure alters the ovarian reserve in adult offspring of rats.

Castel, Pierre · 2020

Young adult rats (PND90) exposed prenatally to the CB1/CB2 agonist WIN55212 had decreased ovarian reserve, an effect reversed by prenatal CB1 receptor blockade with SR141716.

Long-term hippocampal interneuronopathy drives sex-dimorphic spatial memory impairment induced by prenatal THC exposure.

de Salas-Quiroga, Adán · 2020

Adult male mice exposed to THC prenatally showed altered hippocampal oscillations, brain hyperexcitability, and spatial memory impairment.

Effects of chronic nicotine exposure on Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced locomotor activity and neural activation in male and female adolescent and adult rats.

Miladinovic, T · 2020

In 112 rats, chronic nicotine followed by a washout period altered responses to THC challenge.

Cannabinoid-deficient Benin republic hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) improves semen parameters by reducing prolactin and enhancing anti-oxidant status.

Alagbonsi, Abdullateef Isiaka · 2019

Benin Republic hemp extract, which contains no THC or cannabichromene and only trace cannabinol, increased sperm count, morphology, and viability in rats.

Altered motor development following late gestational alcohol and cannabinoid exposure in rats.

Breit, Kristen R · 2019

Cannabinoid exposure (CP-55,940) during the brain growth spurt accelerated early motor development while alcohol delayed it.

Sex, THC, and hormones: Effects on density and sensitivity of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in rats.

Farquhar, Charlotte E · 2019

Researchers gave male and female rats twice-daily THC injections for a week and then measured CB1 receptor density and function across four brain regions: cerebellum, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and striatum.

Cannabidiol improves behavioural and neurochemical deficits in adult female offspring of the maternal immune activation (poly I:C) model of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Osborne, Ashleigh L · 2019

Three weeks of CBD treatment (10 mg/kg) restored recognition memory and social interaction in female poly I:C offspring.

Chronic exposure to cannabidiol induces reproductive toxicity in male Swiss mice.

Carvalho, Renata K · 2018

Researchers gave young male mice daily oral CBD at two doses (15 and 30 mg/kg) for 34 consecutive days, then allowed a 35-day recovery period before assessing reproductive parameters. The higher CBD dose caused a 76% decrease in total circulating testosterone, though levels remained within the physiological normal range.

A Qualitative Investigation Comparing Psychosocial and Physical Sexual Experiences Related to Alcohol and Marijuana Use among Adults.

Palamar, Joseph J · 2018

Twenty-four adults who recently used marijuana before sex were interviewed about how alcohol and marijuana differently affected their sexual experiences. Alcohol effects: facilitated social connections and meeting sexual partners, but was more likely to lead to atypical partner choices (someone they would not normally choose) and feelings of regret after sex.

Perinatal maternal high-fat diet induces early obesity and sex-specific alterations of the endocannabinoid system in white and brown adipose tissue of weanling rat offspring.

Almeida, Mariana M · 2017

Maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy and nursing produced early obesity in rat pups, with enlarged white fat cells and increased lipid in brown fat tissue.

Sex- and hormone-dependent alterations in alcohol withdrawal-induced anxiety and corticolimbic endocannabinoid signaling.

Henricks, Angela M · 2017

This study revealed striking sex differences in how the endocannabinoid system responds to alcohol withdrawal. Male rats exposed to chronic alcohol vapor showed increased anxiety-like behavior during withdrawal, along with reduced anandamide in the amygdala and reduced 2-AG in the prefrontal cortex.

Cannabinoids reverse the effects of early stress on neurocognitive performance in adulthood.

Alteba, Shirley · 2016

Researchers tested whether cannabinoid treatment during late adolescence could reverse the long-term cognitive damage caused by early life stress in rats. Male and female rats were stressed during their first two weeks of life, then treated with the cannabinoid agonist WIN55,212-2 for two weeks during late adolescence.

Estrogen Receptor Beta and 2-arachidonoylglycerol Mediate the Suppressive Effects of Estradiol on Frequency of Postsynaptic Currents in Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons of Metestrous Mice: An Acute Slice Electrophysiological Study.

Bálint, Flóra · 2016

Researchers investigated how estrogen controls GnRH neurons, the brain cells that regulate the reproductive hormone axis.

Type 2 cannabinoid receptor contributes to the physiological regulation of spermatogenesis.

Di Giacomo, Daniele · 2016

Researchers discovered that the CB2 cannabinoid receptor is involved in the normal process of sperm cell development (spermatogenesis) in mice. Activating CB2 with a specific agonist (JWH133) mimicked the effects of retinoic acid on gene expression in spermatogonia (sperm precursor cells), upregulating genes needed for meiosis (c-Kit, Stra8, Prdm9) through epigenetic modifications to histone markers. When young mice were given prolonged JWH133 treatment, they showed accelerated onset of spermatogenesis.

Long-term hippocampal glutamate synapse and astrocyte dysfunctions underlying the altered phenotype induced by adolescent THC treatment in male rats.

Zamberletti, Erica · 2016

Male rats that received THC during adolescence showed lasting cognitive deficits and psychotic-like behaviors in adulthood, but no emotional disturbances.

Neuropsychological sex differences associated with age of initiated use among young adult cannabis users.

Crane, Natania A · 2015

Researchers examined 44 male and 25 female young adult cannabis users to determine whether the age of first cannabis use affected cognitive function differently by sex.

Gender differences in socio-demographic, clinical characteristics and psychiatric diagnosis in/of suicide attempters in a Mexican population.

Fresán, Ana · 2015

Researchers documented 140 suicide attempts at a Mexican hospital over two years.

The impact of gonadal hormones on cannabinoid dependence.

Marusich, Julie A · 2015

Researchers removed the gonads of male and female rats and selectively replaced hormones to isolate their effects on THC dependence.

Endocannabinoid regulation in human endometrium across the menstrual cycle.

Scotchie, Jessica G · 2015

Researchers mapped endocannabinoid system components in the uterine lining of 49 regularly cycling women.

Relationship between seminal plasma levels of anandamide congeners palmitoylethanolamide and oleoylethanolamide and semen quality.

Amoako, Akwasi Atakora · 2014

Researchers measured levels of two endocannabinoid-related molecules, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and oleoylethanolamide (OEA), in seminal plasma from 90 men attending an infertility clinic.

Investigation of sex-dependent effects of cannabis in daily cannabis smokers

Cooper, Ziva D. · 2014

Women gave higher "Good" (p<=0.05) and "Take Again" (p<=0.05) ratings than men under active cannabis conditions in a pooled analysis of four double-blind studies, despite no sex differences in intoxication ratings ("High," "Stimulated") or cardiovascular response.

Evaluation of sex differences in cannabinoid dependence.

Marusich, Julie A · 2014

After 6.5 days of twice-daily THC administration (30 mg/kg), rats challenged with the CB1 antagonist rimonabant displayed a pronounced withdrawal syndrome spanning multiple domains.

Endocannabinoid signaling in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis recovery following stress: effects of indirect agonists and comparison of male and female mice.

Roberts, Christopher J · 2014

After restraint stress, mice lacking CB1 receptors or treated with a CB1 antagonist showed prolonged elevation of corticosterone (the stress hormone), confirming endocannabinoid signaling helps the stress response return to baseline. The MAGL inhibitor JZL184 (which increases 2-AG levels) accelerated corticosterone recovery in both male and female mice, though the timing differed: at stress offset in males and at 30 minutes recovery in females.

Sex differences in cannabinoid pharmacology: A reflection of differences in the endocannabinoid system?

Craft, Rebecca M. · 2013

Across studies, sex differences showed up in both species but with uneven strength.

Withdrawal from THC during adolescence: sex differences in locomotor activity and anxiety.

Harte-Hargrove, Lauren C · 2012

Male and female rats received THC (2, 7.5, or 15 mg/kg) or vehicle during mid-adolescence (postnatal days 35-41).

Differences in the endocannabinoid system of sperm from fertile and infertile men.

Lewis, Sheena E M · 2012

Researchers compared the endocannabinoid system in sperm from fertile and infertile men.

Altered brain activation during visuomotor integration in chronic active cannabis users: relationship to cortisol levels.

King, George R · 2011

Thirty cannabis users (16 men, 14 women) and 30 matched controls were tested with neuropsychological assessments and fMRI during a finger-sequencing task. Male, but not female, cannabis users had significantly slower psychomotor speed.

Protracted cannabinoid administration elicits antidepressant behavioral responses in rats: role of gender and noradrenergic transmission.

Morrish, Anna C · 2009

Male rats received the CB1 receptor agonist HU-210 for 10 days and then underwent the forced swim test, a standard measure of depressive-like behavior. HU-210 reduced immobility and increased struggling, matching the effects of the antidepressant desipramine.

Cannabis and neurodevelopment: implications for psychiatric disorders.

Sundram, Suresh · 2006

Across human observational studies, prenatal exposure through maternal use was associated with small, domain-specific cognitive differences later in life, especially visuospatial skills, along with higher rates of impulsivity, inattention, hyperactivity, depressive symptoms, and substance use disorders.

Sex differences in the acute effects of cannabis: the need for hypothesis-driven research.

Matheson, Justin · 2026

A systematic review found just 6 of 29 human studies showed sex differences in acute cognitive cannabis effects.

Cannabidiol interactions with Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on antinociception after carrageenan-induced inflammatory pain in male and female rats.

Jenkins, Bryan W · 2025

Oral THC dose-dependently decreased hyperalgesia and allodynia in a carrageenan inflammatory pain model, with stronger effects in females than males.

Ever cannabis use and biomarkers of male fecundity - A study in the Danish National Birth Cohort.

Khoury, Georges · 2025

In a cohort of 1,058 young men (59% had ever used cannabis), no associations were found between cannabis use and semen volume, concentration, total count, motility, morphology, or DNA fragmentation.

Antinociceptive action of cannabidiol on thermal sensitivity and post-operative pain in male and female rats.

Arantes, Ana Luisa Ferreira · 2024

CBD 30 mg/kg reduced thermal pain sensitivity in males.

Biological sex and hormonal contraceptive associations with drug cue reactivity in cannabis use disorder.

Macatee, Richard J · 2024

Males and naturally cycling females showed significantly greater neural enhancement (LPP amplitude) to cannabis vs.

Sperm capacitation and transcripts levels are altered by in vitro THC exposure.

Truong, Vivien B · 2023

Physiologically relevant THC concentrations altered sperm capacitation (a key step for fertilization) and changed gene expression patterns in bull sperm used as a translational model for human sperm..

Prenatal exposure to CB2 receptors agonist differentially impacts male and female germ cells via histone modification.

Zucchi, Alice · 2023

Prenatal CB2 receptor activation caused sex-specific changes in germ cell development in offspring, with effects mediated through histone modifications (epigenetic changes).