Cannabis Pregnancy Research

Prevalence and characteristics of prenatal cannabis use in Michigan, USA: A statewide population-based pregnancy cohort.

Al-Sahab, Ban · 2026

Weighted prevalence of prenatal cannabis use was 16.8% combining self-report and urinalysis; self-report alone captured 12.3% while urinalysis caught 13.3%, indicating neither method alone captures the full picture..

Adverse birth outcomes in alcohol-exposed pregnancies with or without tobacco and cannabis.

Anunziata, Florencia · 2026

Compared to alcohol alone, co-occurring alcohol+cannabis increased SGA risk (aRR=1.21); alcohol+tobacco increased extreme/very preterm birth (aRR=1.44), late preterm (aRR=1.25), and SGA (aRR=1.31); all three substances had the highest extreme preterm risk (aRR=1.68)..

Motivations for Cannabis Use During Pregnancy: An Analysis of 2017-2021 Pregnancy Assessment Monitoring System Data.

Skelton, Kara R · 2026

The most common motivations for prenatal cannabis use were mental health reasons (82.81%), gastrointestinal symptom relief (77.10%), pain relief (48.67%), fun or relaxation (40.18%), and chronic condition symptoms (26.31%).

Self-Reported and Biologic Assessments of Prenatal Cannabis Use: Ancillary Analysis of a Prospective Observational Cohort.

Devlin, Paulina M · 2025

Among participants who used cannabis, 74.5% of use at mid-pregnancy and 79.6% at late pregnancy was detected only by urine assay, not self-report.

Partner History of Problematic Substance Use and Self-Reported Substance Use During Early Pregnancy: Findings from Kaiser Permanente Northern California, 2021-2022.

Gallegos, Rachel · 2025

Among 82,180 pregnant individuals, partner substance problems were associated with 89% higher odds of prenatal cannabis (aOR=1.89), 238% higher odds of e-cigarettes (aOR=3.38), and 266% higher odds of tobacco (aOR=3.66)..

Socioeconomic Disparities in Perinatal Substance Use Emergency Department Visits Before and During COVID-19.

González-Alvarez, Ana Daniela · 2025

Pandemic period showed increased odds of ED visits involving alcohol (aOR=1.16, 95% CI: 1.05-1.27) and cannabis (aOR=1.10, 95% CI: 1.01-1.20).

Cannabis Use Among Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women of Childbearing Age: Findings From the 2021-2023 National Survey of Drug Use and Health.

Grigsby, Timothy J · 2025

Among 94,225 women of reproductive age (including 2,051 pregnant), cannabis use prevalence was 12.6% for nonpregnant and 6.8% for pregnant women.

Quantification and prediction of human fetal (-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol/(±)-11-OH-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure during pregnancy to inform fetal cannabis toxicity.

Kumar, Aditya R · 2025

Fetal brain/maternal plasma THC ratios: 0.50 (T1), 0.45 (T2), 0.35 (T3 umbilical).

Predictors of Participation in Prenatal Substance Use Assessment, Counseling, and Treatment Among Pregnant Individuals in Prenatal Settings Who Use Cannabis.

Lapham, Gwen T · 2025

80.3% of cannabis-positive pregnancies completed assessment.

Prenatal Cannabis Use and Neonatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Lo, Jamie O · 2025

Cannabis use in pregnancy was associated with increased odds of low birth weight (OR=1.75), preterm birth (OR=1.52), small for gestational age (OR=1.57), and perinatal mortality (OR=1.29).

The impact of using cannabis during pregnancy on the infant and mother: An overview of systematic reviews, evidence map, targeted updates, and de novo synthesis.

Munn, Zachary · 2025

Across 89 included studies/reviews, prenatal cannabis exposure showed potentially harmful impacts on all fetal growth measures, some neonatal outcomes, some later-life developmental outcomes, and some maternal outcomes.

Prenatal cannabis exposure is associated with alterations in offspring DNA methylation at genes involved in neurodevelopment, across the life course.

Noble, Alexandra J · 2025

Prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with genome-wide significant DNA methylation differences at birth, 7 years, 15-17 years, and 27 years.

Associations Between Violence and Unsafe Living Situations With Cannabis Use During Early Pregnancy.

Ogden, Shannon N · 2025

Past-year violence and unsafe/unstable living situations were associated with higher prenatal cannabis use in adjusted analyses.

Association Between Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and Child Health Care Use: A Retrospective Cohort Study in Ontario, Canada.

Pratt Tremblay, Gabrielle · 2025

In a retrospective cohort of 508,025 Ontario infants (3,248 cannabis-exposed), prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with 14% fewer primary care visits (aRR 0.86, 95% CI 0.84-0.87), 29% more outpatient psychiatrist visits (aRR 1.29, 95% CI 1.00-1.66), 5% more ER visits (aRR 1.05, 95% CI 1.03-1.08), and 12% more hospitalizations (aRR 1.12, 95% CI 1.04-1.20).

The Prevalence and Predictors of Reported Prenatal Anxiety Among Primigravid Individuals in Nova Scotia.

Ramia, Jessica · 2025

In 53,852 first-time pregnancies in Nova Scotia (2004-2023), reported prenatal anxiety prevalence was 8.9% overall but rose from under 5% to over 20% over the study period.

Cannabis Retailer Advice on Blunt, Tobacco, and Cannabis Use During Pregnancy.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2025

While 80% of budtenders advised against prenatal tobacco and blunt use, only 40% said prenatal cannabis use was unsafe.

Association of preconception cannabis use frequency with cannabis use during early pregnancy.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2025

Daily preconception cannabis use was associated with 2.66 times greater risk of prenatal use compared to monthly or less use.

Association of Preconception and Prenatal Cannabis Use With Breastfeeding.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2025

While breastfeeding initiation was similar across groups (90-96%), prenatal cannabis users were 12% more likely to stop breastfeeding earlier (aHR = 1.12) and had 16-19% lower breastfeeding prevalence at 6 and 12 months.

Frequency of Preconception and Prenatal Cannabis Use and Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2025

Daily prenatal cannabis use was associated with 3.80x odds of severe NVP and 1.97x odds of mild NVP.

Alcohol, Cannabis, and nicotine use during early pregnancy and infant hearing loss.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2025

Prenatal alcohol use was associated with increased infant hearing loss risk (aRR: 1.37, 95% CI: 1.05-1.79), but neither prenatal cannabis use nor nicotine use was significantly associated with hearing loss in the first six months of life..

Prenatal Cannabis Use and Offspring Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Disruptive Behavior Disorders: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2025

After adjusting for maternal sociodemographics, other substance use, and comorbidities, prenatal cannabis use showed no association with ADHD (aHR: 0.84) and an inverse association with DBD (aHR: 0.83).

The First "Hit" to the Endocannabinoid System? Associations Between Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and Frontolimbic White Matter Pathways in Children.

Evanski, Julia M · 2024

Prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with lower fractional anisotropy (a measure of white matter integrity) in the right and left fornix.

Marijuana Use among Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women of Reproductive Age, 2013-2019.

Kobernik, Emily K · 2024

Among pregnant women, 4.9% reported past-month marijuana use and 15.2% reported past-year use.

Examining the association between prenatal cannabis exposure and child autism traits: A multi-cohort investigation in the environmental influences on child health outcome program.

Nutor, Chaela · 2024

Associations between prenatal cannabis and ASD traits were not significant when controlling for covariates, particularly tobacco.

Birth, cognitive and behavioral effects of intrauterine cannabis exposure in infants and children: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Sorkhou, Maryam · 2024

Intrauterine cannabis exposure was associated with preterm delivery (OR=1.68, p=0.03), low birth weight (OR=2.60, p<0.001), and NICU admission (OR=2.51, p<0.001).

The association between prenatal cannabis use and congenital birth defects in offspring: A cumulative meta-analysis.

Tadesse, Abay Woday · 2024

Prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with increased risks of cardiovascular/heart defects (OR=2.35), gastrointestinal defects (OR=2.42), central nervous system defects (OR=2.87), genitourinary defects (OR=2.39), and any/unclassified birth defects (OR=1.25).

Prenatal cannabis use and the risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Tadesse, Abay Woday · 2024

Prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with increased ADHD symptoms (B=0.39, p=0.001) and a 30% higher risk of ASD (RR=1.30, p<0.05).

Polysubstance use during pregnancy: The importance of screening, patient education, and integrating a harm reduction perspective.

Board, Amy · 2023

In a nationally representative US sample, cigarettes (8.1%), alcohol (7.4%), and cannabis (4.3%) were the most commonly reported substances during pregnancy.

Cannabis use, cannabis use disorder and mental health disorders among pregnant and postpartum women in the US: A nationally representative study.

Brown, Qiana L · 2023

Among 1,316 pregnant and postpartum women, past-year cannabis use prevalence was 9.8% and cannabis use disorder (CUD) was 3.2%.

Impact of Prenatal Cannabis Use Disorder on Perinatal Outcomes.

Prewitt, Kristin C · 2023

Among 2,380,446 births, 9,144 (0.38%) had prenatal cannabis use disorder.

Incidence of Newborn Drug Testing and Variations by Birthing Parent Race and Ethnicity Before and After Recreational Cannabis Legalization.

Schoneich, Sebastian · 2023

NDT was ordered for 7.3% of Black vs.

Animal evidence considered in determination of cannabis smoke and Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9 -THC) as causing reproductive toxicity (developmental endpoint); Part II. Neurodevelopmental effects.

Iyer, Poorni · 2022

Prenatal cannabis smoke or THC exposure in animals produced: impaired locomotor and exploratory behavior (rats), memory and learning deficits, attention deficits, increased separation-induced vocalizations, reduced social interaction, increased anxiety, and enhanced sensitivity to morphine and heroin rewarding effects in adulthood.

Prenatal marijuana exposure and neonatal outcomes: a retrospective cohort study.

Jones, Michael James · 2022

Neonates exposed to THC had significantly lower birth weight, head circumference, and length (all p<0.001).

Cannabis use in pregnancy and maternal and infant outcomes: A Canadian cross-jurisdictional population-based cohort study.

Luke, Sabrina · 2022

Prenatal cannabis use (prevalence ~2%) was associated with increased risks of spontaneous preterm birth (aOR 1.80), medically indicated preterm birth (aOR 1.94), very preterm birth (aOR 1.73), low birth weight (aOR 1.90), small-for-gestational age (aOR 1.21), major congenital anomalies (aOR 1.71), cesarean section (aOR 1.13), and gestational diabetes (aOR 1.32).

Guideline No. 425a: Cannabis Use Throughout Women's Lifespans - Part 1: Fertility, Contraception, Menopause, and Pelvic Pain.

Robert, Magali · 2022

The guideline addressed cannabis effects on hormonal regulation, reproductive health, sexual function, perimenopausal and menopausal symptoms, and chronic pelvic pain.

Associations Between Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and Childhood Outcomes: Results From the ABCD Study.

Paul, Sarah E · 2021

Children exposed to cannabis prenatally showed greater psychotic-like experiences, internalizing, externalizing, attention, thought, and social problems, more sleep difficulties, higher BMI, and lower cognitive performance.

Factors Associated With Cannabis Use During the Reproductive Cycle: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study of Women in States With Recreational and Medical Cannabis Legalization.

Taylor, Danica Loralyn · 2021

Recreational cannabis legalization was associated with higher cannabis use across preconception (OR=2.37), prenatal (OR=1.51), and postpartum periods.

Association of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure With Psychosis Proneness Among Children in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study.

Fine, Jeremy D · 2019

Maternal cannabis use during pregnancy, particularly after the mother knew she was pregnant, was associated with higher psychosis proneness scores in their children, based on data from the large-scale Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study..

US Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Associated Problems.

Hasin, Deborah S · 2018

This comprehensive review documented the shifting landscape of cannabis use in the United States. Both adults and adolescents increasingly perceive cannabis as harmless.

Committee Opinion No. 637: Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Lactation.

· 2015

ACOG issued a formal committee opinion stating that women who are pregnant or contemplating pregnancy should be encouraged to discontinue marijuana use.

Association between stillbirth and illicit drug use and smoking during pregnancy.

Varner, Michael W · 2014

Among 663 stillbirth deliveries and 1,932 live birth controls, a positive umbilical cord test for any illicit drug was associated with stillbirth (OR 1.94).

Multidimensional influences on prenatal cannabis use: A reflexive thematic analysis of low-income birthing people.

Alaniz, Kristine · 2026

Five themes emerged: pregnancy as a turning point for cannabis use, cannabis for emotional regulation, complex cannabis-mental health ties, relational influences on use, and contextual barriers to informed decision-making — with emotional regulation and mental health as the most cited drivers..

Cannabis Use During Pregnancy Is Associated with the Suppression of Circulating Maternal Cytokines.

Alshaarawy, Omayma · 2026

Cannabis use suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ (β=-0.5) and IL-12 (β=-0.3) and anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 (β=-0.7) and IL-10 (β=-0.4) in pregnant women, indicating broad immune modulation rather than simple immunosuppression..

Illicit Drug Use During Pregnancy in States With and Without Punitive Prenatal Substance Use Policies.

Austin, Anna E · 2026

Multivariable analysis found no difference in illicit drug use during pregnancy between states with punitive policies and those without (RR=1.02, 95% CI=0.93-1.11), suggesting these policies fail to achieve their stated goal..

Is cannabis legalization associated with treatment completion? A study of pregnant women admitted for cannabis use in substance use treatment facilities, 2020-2022.

Carandang, Rogie Royce · 2026

This is the first large-scale study to examine whether cannabis legalization affects treatment completion among pregnant women—a uniquely vulnerable population where treatment success has direct consequences for two patients. Using the Treatment Episode Data Set-Discharge (national treatment data from 2020–2022), the researchers analyzed 13,088 pregnant women admitted for cannabis use across states with different legal frameworks: fully legalized, medical only, or illegal. The finding was stark: pregnant women in states with full legalization had an adjusted odds ratio of 0.33 for treatment completion compared to illegal states—meaning 67% lower odds of completing treatment.

Alcohol Consumption During Pregnancy and State Implementation of Legal Nonmedical Cannabis Retail Sales in the U.S., 2011-2023.

Denny, Clark H · 2026

Prevalence of binge drinking during pregnancy was 2.13 times higher in states with legal recreational cannabis retail sales.

From card to cradle: examining medical cannabis purchasing among pregnant women in Arkansas.

ElHassan, Nahed O · 2026

1,185 of 72,992 pregnancies (1.62%) included medical cannabis purchases during pregnancy.

Prenatal Cannabis Exposure Shaping Altered Brain Connectivity: Neural Correlates of Cognitive and Mental Health Variability in Offspring.

Fu, Zening · 2026

Drawing on the massive Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study — which enrolled 11,875 children across 22 research sites — this analysis examined how prenatal cannabis exposure (PCE) relates to brain network organization, cognitive performance, and mental health in children. Using resting-state functional MRI and the NeuroMark framework to identify individualized brain connectivity networks, researchers found that children with PCE showed altered patterns of intrinsic connectivity compared to unexposed children.

Recreational Cannabis Use During Human Pregnancy: Its Effects on the Placenta and Endocannabinoid System.

Harhangi, Madhavi S · 2026

Cannabis use interferes with the placental endocannabinoid system which regulates placental development and blood flow, with THC and CBD exerting effects via this system — and epidemiological data linking cannabis use to placental insufficiency, fetal growth restriction, preeclampsia, and potential epigenetic transgenerational effects..

Developmental windows of vulnerability: Substance-specific effects of prenatal exposure timing on child psychopathology.

Li, Qiaojun · 2026

Analyzing data from 7,777 children in the ABCD Study, researchers found that the timing of prenatal substance exposure relative to when mothers became aware of their pregnancy produced strikingly different risk patterns for each substance. For cannabis, post-awareness exposure (continued use after the mother knew she was pregnant) was specifically linked to childhood psychopathology symptoms.

Developmental Cascades From Prenatal Tobacco, Tobacco-cannabis Co-exposure to Early school-age externalizing Problems.

Perry, Kristin J · 2026

Prenatal tobacco-cannabis co-exposure (PTCE) was associated with externalizing problems through an emotion regulation pathway, while prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) alone was associated through a combined maternal negative mood and temperament pathway.

Health Care Utilization and Developmental Delay Among Infants Exposed to Cannabis In Utero.

Raffa, Brittany J · 2026

Among 4,270 Medicaid-insured infants with meconium drug screening, cannabis-exposed infants (n=1,671) had similar rates of well-child care attendance, emergency department visits, and developmental delay diagnoses at 3 years compared to unexposed infants (n=2,599).

The relationship between maternal cannabis use disorder diagnosis and the development of retinopathy of prematurity.

Tran, Melanie D · 2026

Among infants born at 22-31 weeks gestation, 32.1% of those born to mothers with cannabis use disorder developed retinopathy of prematurity compared to 33.3% of those born to mothers without CUD.

The Incidence of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome Remained Stable in Eastern Denmark From 2013 to 2018 and Was Sometimes Associated With Cannabis.

Vestermark, Vibeke · 2026

Among 98 neonates pharmacologically treated for NAS in eastern Denmark over 6 years, the incidence remained stable at 0.6 per 1,000 live births.

Child Behavioral Scores Correlate With Prenatal Tobacco and Marijuana Exposure, Sociodemographic Variables and Interactions of Default Mode and Dorsal Attention Networks.

Vishnubhotla, Ramana V · 2026

Using data from 6,674 children in the ABCD Study, researchers examined how prenatal substance exposure related to both behavioral outcomes and brain functional connectivity. Both prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) and prenatal marijuana exposure were associated with worse behavioral scores on the Child Behavior Checklist.

Cannabis use in pregnancy: Key findings from 2021-2023 National Survey on Drug Use and Health data.

Wysota, Christina N · 2026

Nearly 7% of pregnant participants reported current (past 30-day) cannabis use.

In utero chronic cannabis exposure is associated with lower total brain volume in the first month of postnatal life.

Crume, Tessa L · 2025

Studying prenatal cannabis exposure is extremely difficult because most pregnant cannabis users also use tobacco, alcohol, or other substances, making it nearly impossible to isolate cannabis's independent effects.

Cannabis Use During Pregnancy Correlates With Adverse Maternal Mental Health Outcomes: A Retrospective Study.

Dereschuk, Kypros J · 2025

Cannabis use during pregnancy was associated with significantly elevated risks across all four mental health outcomes: depression (RR 2.66), panic disorder (RR 5.47), suicidal ideation (RR 10.67), and alcohol abuse (RR 13.57).

Associations of maternal peripregnancy cannabis use with behavioral and developmental outcomes in children with and without symptoms of autism spectrum disorder: Study to Explore Early Development.

DiGuiseppi, Carolyn · 2025

Preconception-only cannabis use was associated with more aggressive behavior, emotional reactivity, and sleep problems specifically in children with ASD symptoms, but not in children without.

Cannabis impacts female fertility as evidenced by an in vitro investigation and a case-control study.

Duval, Cyntia · 2025

In the clinical study, follicular fluid THC concentration was positively correlated with oocyte maturation, but THC-positive patients had significantly lower embryo euploid (chromosomally normal) rates than matched controls.

Evaluating maternal drug use disparities, risk factors and outcomes in Northeast Arkansas: a pre, during, and post-COVID-19 pandemic analysis.

Gomez Pomar, Enrique · 2025

Among 450 positive meconium drug screens, THC was most common (64.2%), followed by amphetamines (11.1%) and opioids (6.7%).

Knowledge and Attitudes About Perinatal Marijuana Use Among US Postpartum Mothers: A Better Outcomes Through Research for Newborns Network Study.

Goyal, Neera K · 2025

In a multi-site survey of 484 postpartum mothers, 59.9% reported any lifetime marijuana use and 9.3% used during their current pregnancy.

Placental Endocannabinoid System: Focus on Preeclampsia and Cannabis Use.

Harhangi, Madhavi S · 2025

The study found three distinct patterns: (1) In healthy pregnancies, anandamide relaxed placental arteries via CB1 and CB2 receptors.

Typologies of Maternal Substance Use in Pregnancy: Latent Classes and Sociodemographic Correlates in a U.S. Sample.

Jenkins, Marina C · 2025

Seven latent classes of maternal substance use were identified: minimal users (70.7%), pre-pregnancy cigarette users (10.5%), persistent cigarette users (6.8%), pre-pregnancy cannabis users (5.5%), broad polysubstance users (3.6%), opioid-only users (1.9%), and persistent cigarette/opioid co-users (1.0%).

Risk of adverse obstetrical and neonatal outcomes in women consuming recreational drugs during pregnancy.

Kandhasamy, Sreemanjari · 2025

Among 177 pregnant women followed for addiction, those using cocaine and/or opioids (with or without cannabis) had 3.88 times higher odds of adverse neonatal outcomes compared to cannabis-only users.

The changing landscape of cannabis use: impact on maternal health and neonatal outcomes.

Krishnan, Parvathy · 2025

Beyond the well-documented cognitive and neurodevelopmental effects, prenatal cannabis exposure is associated with fetal growth restriction, altered cardiovascular development, hematologic changes, gastrointestinal effects, and increased long-term risk for obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Cannabis Use and Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy Are Associated with Poorer Postpartum Mental Health.

Marvin, Matthew J · 2025

Cannabis use during pregnancy was significantly associated with elevated postpartum PTSD (beta = 0.25) and depression symptoms, independent of IPV victimization.

Trends and variations in admissions for cannabis use disorder among pregnant women in United States.

Mejia, Maria C · 2025

A retrospective analysis found rising rates of hospital admissions with cannabis use disorder diagnoses among pregnant women, suggesting growing prenatal cannabis use or improved diagnostic detection..

Cognitive and behavioral pathways from prenatal cocaine exposure to regular marijuana use during emerging adulthood.

Minnes, Sonia · 2025

Among 310 participants tracked from birth, prenatal cocaine exposure predicted poorer executive function at age 12 (beta=0.19), which predicted substance use at 15 (beta=0.21), which strongly predicted regular marijuana use at 21 (beta=0.70).

Impact of prenatal exposure to delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on birth size and postnatal growth trajectories.

Moore, Brianna F · 2025

Among 128 mother-child pairs, prenatal THC exposure (12% of children) was associated with 95g less fat mass and 2.1% lower adiposity at birth, followed by rapid postnatal growth (0.42 BMI z-score increase per square root year).

Age-Related Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids on Brain and Behavior.

Murray, Conor H · 2025

Recent epidemiological data suggest a potential reversal in escalating cannabis use rates among pregnant women and adolescents, but use among older adults continues to climb with low risk perception.

Prenatal Cannabis and Tobacco Co-Exposure and Its Association with Behavioural Outcomes in Middle Childhood: Co-exposition prénatale au cannabis et au tabac et son association avec les résultats comportementaux au cours de l'enfance intermédiaire.

Nadler, Emma · 2025

Prenatal co-exposure to cannabis and tobacco was associated with significantly greater externalizing behavior problems (aggression, rule-breaking) compared to either substance alone.

The Effect of Cannabis Consumption During Lactation on the Macronutrient Concentrations in Breast Milk.

Narayanan, Priyadharshini · 2025

The presence of cannabis metabolites in breast milk was associated with an increase of 0.244 mg/dL in protein and an 11% reduction in fat content.

The Impact of Frequency of Cannabis Use on Hypertensive Disorders During Pregnancy.

Nidey, Nichole · 2025

Cannabis use as a binary variable (yes/no) was not associated with higher odds of hypertension during pregnancy (OR 0.86).

The Effects of THC and Nicotine on Attention: A Narrative Review.

Oleszak, Kennedy · 2025

Cannabis impairs selective attention and creates attentional bias toward cannabis cues.

Prenatal Cannabis Use and Depressive Symptoms.

Pitt, Taylor L · 2025

Among 8,424 pregnant women in the nuMoM2b study, any cannabis exposure was not significantly associated with later depressive symptoms (aOR 1.3, 95% CI 0.97-1.6).

Longitudinal Associations Between Cannabis Use during Pregnancy and Child Cognitive, Motor, and Language Development at 2 Years Old.

Pleau, Justine · 2025

In 1,489 mother-infant dyads from the 3D prospective cohort, prenatal cannabis use (2.6% of women) showed no significant associations with cognitive (B=0.016), fine motor (B=0.029), gross motor (B=0.060), or language development (B=0.200) at age 2.

Effects of prenatal cannabinoid use on the monoamine system in the fetoplacental unit: A systematic review of animal and human studies.

Portillo, Ramon · 2025

After screening 18,252 papers, only 16 animal and 4 human studies met criteria.

Alcohol and drug use and attainment of pregnancy preferences in the southwestern United States: A longitudinal cohort study.

Raifman, Sarah · 2025

In a longitudinal cohort of 2,015 individuals capable of pregnancy, heavy drinking and daily cannabis use were associated with higher desire to avoid pregnancy.

Risks of Cannabinoid Exposure on Birth Outcomes: A Systematic Review.

Reck, A Matthew · 2025

Among 21 rodent and 36 human studies, prenatal cannabis/THC exposure was significantly associated with lower birth weight in both species.

Systematic review: the impact of maternal pre-and postnatal cannabis use on the behavioral and emotional regulation in early childhood.

Reyentanz, Emely · 2025

From 1,061 screened articles, 33 were included.

Adverse childhood experiences, resilience, and cannabis use in early motherhood.

Roland, Alysa · 2025

In 126 predominantly low-income mothers followed through three years postpartum, the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and cannabis use depended on resilience level.

Prenatal cannabis exposure and the risk of subsequent maltreatment.

Ryan, Joseph P · 2025

Among 35,437 births, Black and multiracial newborns were significantly more likely to be drug-tested.

Prenatal cannabis screening and counseling practices by state recreational legalization status: A multi-state examination of PRAMS data (2017-2020).

Skelton, Kara R · 2025

Only 20.53% received guideline-adherent cannabis advice.

Impact of Cannabis Legalization on Umbilical Cord Tissue Tetrahydrocannabinol Levels.

Spence, Kimberly · 2025

A higher percentage of umbilical cord tissue tested positive for THC after legalization (46.2% vs.

Maternal perinatal cannabis use disorder and the risk of anxiety disorders in offspring: Insights from a longitudinal data-linkage cohort study.

Tadesse, Abay Woday · 2025

Offspring exposed to maternal CUD prenatally had 79% increased risk of any anxiety disorder (aRR 1.79), with specific increases for PTSD (aRR 2.46), GAD (aRR 2.18), and childhood anxiety disorders (aRR 1.91).

Maternal cannabis use disorder and offspring behavioral outcomes: findings from a linked data cohort study.

Tadesse, Abay Woday · 2025

Maternal CUD during pregnancy was associated with significantly higher risk of disruptive behavioral disorders in offspring: antenatal CUD (RR 3.56, CI 2.42-5.05), perinatal CUD (RR 3.55, CI 2.45-4.98), and postnatal CUD (RR 2.95, CI 1.23-6.16).

Predictors of perinatal cannabis use in colorado and the association with depression during pregnancy.

Teano, Valerie J · 2025

13.3% (15,585) reported perinatal cannabis use.

Estimating the effects of prenatal cannabis exposure on birth outcomes.

Vanderziel, Alyssa · 2025

Covariate-adjusted models revealed a significant association between prenatal cannabis exposure and reduced birth size (β = -0.3; 95% CI: -0.5, -0.003), using a continuous birth size measure rather than just birth weight extremes..

Pregnancy Care in Times of Cannabis Legalization: Self-Rated Knowledge, Risk Perception and Communication Practices of Midwives in Germany.

Wollscheid, Julia · 2025

German midwives showed variable self-rated knowledge of cannabis risks in pregnancy and inconsistent frequency of screening and counseling patients about cannabis use, despite their central role in prenatal care..

High Stakes: Exploring the Impact of Cannabis Use in Pregnancy and Lactation.

Wymore, Erica M · 2025

Cannabis use in pregnancy has a prevalence of 3-30%, with nearly half of active users continuing despite medical guidance against it.

Sociodemographic differences in modes of cannabis use among pregnant individuals in Northern California.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2025

Smoking predominated (71.1%), but nearly 30% used multiple modes.

Altered neurobehavioral reward response predicts psychotic-like experiences in youth exposed to cannabis prenatally.

Amir, Carolyn M · 2024

Prenatal cannabis exposure (PCE) was longitudinally associated with psychotic-like experiences in youth.

Maternal Cannabis Use in Pregnancy and Autism Spectrum Disorder or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Offspring.

Andrade, Chittaranjan · 2024

Meta-analysis of 13 studies found gestational cannabis exposure associated with ASD (RR 1.30) and ADHD (RR 1.13, possibly supported by publication bias).

Towards a Further Understanding of Meta-Analysis Using Gestational Exposure to Cannabis and Birth Defects as a Case in Point.

Andrade, Chittaranjan · 2024

Pooling data from 18 cohort and 18 case-control studies (>19 million subjects), prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with any birth defect (pooled ORs 1.25-1.33).

Maternal Cannabis Use During Pregnancy and Maternal and Neonatal Adverse Outcomes.

Andrade, Chittaranjan · 2024

Maternal cannabis use during pregnancy was associated with small to moderately increased risks of gestational hypertension, abnormal gestational weight gain, placental abruption, preterm birth (<36, <34, and <32 weeks), small for gestational age, low birth weight, NICU admission, and fetal death, even in women not using other substances..

The impact of pregnancy and associated hormones on the pharmacokinetics of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol.

Authement, Aurora K · 2024

THC is primarily (>70%) cleared by CYP2C9 to its psychoactive metabolite 11-OH-THC, with CYP3A4 contributing <30%.

Cannabis and Pregnancy.

Bespalova, Nadejda · 2024

Recent studies show possible perinatal and longitudinal neurodevelopment risks from prenatal cannabis exposure.

Cannabidiol-Only Product Use in Pregnancy in the United States and Canada: Findings From the International Cannabis Policy Study.

Bhatia, Devika · 2024

Prevalence of CBD-only use in pregnant women was 20.4% vs.

Perinatal Cannabis Use and Cannabis Use during Breastfeeding: the Role of Health Care Workers.

Bhatia, Devika · 2024

67.8% of women reported an HCW discussed cannabis at prenatal visits.

Characteristics of women concordant and discordant for urine drug screens for cannabis exposure and self-reported cannabis use during pregnancy.

Bogdan, Ryan · 2024

Concordance between self-report and urine drug screen was moderate (k=0.49).

Prenatal THC exposure drives sex-specific alterations in spatial memory and hippocampal excitatory/inhibitory balance in adolescent rats.

Castelli, Valentina · 2024

Prenatal THC exposure caused sex-specific disruption in spatial memory retrieval and flexibility.

Marijuana Use and Breastfeeding: A Survey of Newborn Nurseries.

Chang, Pearl W · 2024

For mothers with a positive cannabinoid screen at delivery, 16% of hospitals universally or selectively restrict breastfeeding.

Development and validation of the Cannabis Exposure in Pregnancy Tool (CEPT): a mixed methods study.

Chaput, Kathleen H · 2024

The CEPT demonstrated excellent psychometric properties: convergent validity (kappa=0.72-1.0), high internal consistency (alpha=0.92), very good 3-month test-retest reliability (weighted kappa=0.92), and 100% sensitivity with 82% specificity against urine THC bioassay..

Cannabis Use and Trajectories of Depression and Stress Across the Prenatal Period.

Constantino-Pettit, Anna · 2024

Depression, stress, and cannabis use all decreased from first to third trimester.

Prenatal cannabis use disorder and gastroschisis in California, 2007-19.

Delker, Erin · 2024

Cannabis use disorder during pregnancy was associated with gastroschisis (a birth defect where intestines protrude through the abdominal wall).

Medical Marijuana Legalization in Oklahoma: Effects on Neonatal Exposure to Opiates.

DeShea, Lise · 2024

Comparing 19 months before and after Oklahoma's medical marijuana law, positive THC tests in newborns increased significantly from 16.2 to 22.2 per 1,000 liveborn infants (p=0.004).

The longitudinal assessment of prenatal cannabis use on neonatal outcomes.

Habersham, Leah L · 2024

Among 894 pregnant individuals followed in a longitudinal study, 13.1% used cannabis.

Prenatal tobacco and tobacco-Cannabis co-exposure and unpredictability in maternal anger/hostility: Implications for toddler reactivity.

Kelm, Madison R · 2024

Prenatal tobacco-cannabis co-exposure had a direct effect on blunted toddler reactivity in males only.

High-Potency Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and Birth Outcome Measures.

Kleinhans, Natalia M · 2024

Among 37 cannabis-exposed and 35 control newborns in otherwise low-risk pregnancies, cannabis-exposed newborns weighed less (38th vs 52nd percentile, p = 0.04) and were shorter (40th vs 55th percentile, p = 0.03).

Incidence of postpartum depression in low-income cannabis users with and without a history of depression.

Lendel, Anastasia · 2024

Among 799 patients, 15.9% used cannabis during pregnancy.

Prenatal Exposure to Cannabis: Effects on Childhood Obesity and Cardiometabolic Health.

Moore, Brianna F · 2024

Prenatal cannabis exposure is consistently associated with small for gestational age and low birth weight.

Relationships Between Prenatal Cocaine Exposure, Cannabis-Use Onset and Emotional and Related Characteristics in Young/Emerging Adults.

Morie, Kristen P · 2024

Individuals with prenatal cocaine exposure used cannabis at younger ages, had greater cannabis use severity, and showed higher impulsivity, state anxiety, and alexithymia.

Changes in prenatal cannabis-related diagnosed disorders after the Cannabis Act and the COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec, Canada.

Nazif-Munoz, José Ignacio · 2024

After the Cannabis Act took effect in October 2018, there was a significant 24% increase (95% CI: 1-53%) in cannabis-related diagnosed disorders among pregnant women aged 15-49..

Prenatal Cannabis Use and Offspring Autism-Related Behaviors: Examining Maternal Stress as a Moderator in a Black American Cohort.

Nutor, C · 2024

Prenatal cannabis use did not predict ASD-related behaviors.

Prenatal tobacco, tobacco-cannabis coexposure, and child emotion regulation: The role of child autonomic functioning and sensitive parenting.

Perry, Kristin J · 2024

Direct effects from prenatal exposure on early school age emotion regulation were not significant.

Implications of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure on Childhood Neurodevelopmental Outcomes: A Summary of the Clinical Evidence.

Sheffield, Sydney Mei · 2024

Limited but consistent data showed associations between prenatal cannabis exposure and increased startles and difficulty consoling in newborns, memory and verbal reasoning challenges in early childhood, diminished academic performance, and inattention, hyperactivity, and aggression in early childhood..

Prenatal tobacco and tobacco-cannabis co-exposure: Relationship with attention and memory in middle childhood.

Shisler, Shannon · 2024

Prenatal tobacco exposure was associated with increased impulsive responding on sustained attention tasks, particularly when exposure occurred in the first trimester.

Exposure to maternal cannabis use disorder and risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A data linkage cohort study.

Tadesse, Abay Woday · 2024

Children of mothers with cannabis use disorder had approximately three times the risk of being diagnosed with ASD compared to non-exposed children.

The impact of recreational cannabinoid legalization on utilization in a pregnant population.

Torres, Jacob · 2024

Reported prenatal cannabis use significantly decreased from 33.8% (Epoch 1: pre-legalization) to 22.8% (Epoch 2: post-legalization).

Birth outcomes following in utero co-exposure to tobacco and marijuana.

Waddell, Madison L · 2024

There were no significant differences in any birth outcome (APGAR scores, respiratory distress, NICU admission, growth restriction, birth weight, length, head circumference, gestational age, hospital stay) between tobacco-only users (n=71) and tobacco-plus-marijuana users (n=127).

Association between maternal prenatal cannabis use and missed child preventive care visits in an integrated health care delivery system in Northern California.

Avalos, Lyndsay A · 2023

Maternal prenatal cannabis use was associated with more missed well-child visits at every time period from birth through 36 months.

Tobacco and Cannabis Use During and After Pregnancy in California.

Azenkot, Tali · 2023

Cannabis use during pregnancy (4.9%) was more than twice as common as cigarette smoking (2.1%) in California.

Prenatal cannabis use disorder and infant hospitalization and death in the first year of life.

Bandoli, Gretchen · 2023

Infant death in the first year was more common with maternal CUD (1.0% vs 0.4%; adjusted RR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.2-1.6).

Maternal, Fetal and Neonatal Outcomes Related to Recreational Cannabis Use during Pregnancy: Analysis of a Real-World Clinical Data Warehouse between 2010 and 2019.

Bouquet, Emilie · 2023

Among 669 pregnancies analyzed (123 cannabis users, 191 tobacco-only, 355 controls), cannabis use during pregnancy was associated with increased voluntary interruption of pregnancy, at least one adverse event during pregnancy, at least one neonatal adverse event, prematurity, and small-for-gestational-age births.

Drug use in pregnancy in Ireland's capital city: A decade of trends and outcomes.

Corbett, Gillian A · 2023

Among 82,669 deliveries, 525 had drug use in pregnancy (1 in 160).

Exploring the associations between serious psychological distress and the quantity or frequency of tobacco, alcohol, and cannabis use among pregnant women in the United States.

David, Ayomide T · 2023

Among 3,373 pregnant women aged 18-44, approximately 6% experienced serious psychological distress in the past 30 days.

Prenatal Exposure to Cannabis and Risk of Major Structural Birth Defects: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Delker, Erin · 2023

Across 23 studies spanning birth years 1968-2021, the pooled unadjusted odds ratio for any birth defect was 1.33 (95% CI 1.14-1.56), attenuating to 1.22 (95% CI 1.00-1.50) after adjustment.

Acute care related to cannabis use during pregnancy after the legalization of nonmedical cannabis in Ontario.

Myran, Daniel Thomas · 2023

The mean quarterly rate of cannabis-related acute care during pregnancy rose from 11.0 to 20.0 per 100,000 pregnancies after legalization (IRR 1.82).

The impact of in utero cannabis exposure on fetal growth.

Nadolski, K · 2023

After controlling for confounders, cannabis exposure predicted significant deficits in birth weight and head circumference.

Association of maternal exposure to Superstorm Sandy and maternal cannabis use with development of psychopathology among offspring: the Stress in Pregnancy Study.

Nomura, Yoko · 2023

Among 163 children tracked from ages 2-5, those exposed to both Superstorm Sandy and maternal cannabis use (8% of sample) had a 31-fold increased risk of disruptive behavioral disorders and a 7-fold increased risk of anxiety disorders compared to those exposed to neither.

Sex- and age-specific respiratory alterations induced by prenatal exposure to the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 in rats.

Patrone, Luis Gustavo A · 2023

Prenatal WIN55,212-2 caused greater CO2 sensitivity at most ages in males and juvenile females.

Clinical Epigenomic Explanation of the Epidemiology of Cannabinoid Genotoxicity Manifesting as Transgenerational Teratogenesis, Cancerogenesis and Aging Acceleration.

Reece, Albert Stuart · 2023

Longitudinal epigenome-wide association studies showed cannabinoid exposure disrupts chromosomal segregation, DNA repair, methylation machinery, and telomerase function.

Impact of converging sociocultural and substance-related trends on US autism rates: combined geospatiotemporal and causal inferential analysis.

Reece, Albert Stuart · 2023

National-level analysis found daily cannabis use significantly related to autism rates (beta=4.37, P<10^-16) and first-trimester exposure (beta=0.12, P=1.7x10^-12).

Cannabinoids and the placenta: Receptors, signaling and outcomes.

Rokeby, Abbey C E · 2023

Cannabinoid receptors are expressed throughout the human and murine placenta.

Alcohol & cannabinoid co-use: Implications for impaired fetal brain development following gestational exposure.

Rouzer, Siara Kate · 2023

Both alcohol and cannabinoids independently impact fetal neurodevelopment with lifelong consequences.

Prenatal THC exposure induces long-term, sex-dependent cognitive dysfunction associated with lipidomic and neuronal pathology in the prefrontal cortex-hippocampal network.

Sarikahya, Mohammed H · 2023

Both sexes showed long-term cognitive deficits and hyperactive prefrontal pyramidal neurons.

Prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure is associated with changes in rhesus macaque DNA methylation enriched for autism genes.

Shorey-Kendrick, Lyndsey E · 2023

Prenatal THC exposure was associated with differential methylation at 581 CpGs, with 573 (98%) in placenta.

The beneficial effect of sleep on behavioral health problems in youth is disrupted by prenatal cannabis exposure: A causal random forest analysis of Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development data.

Spechler, Philip A · 2023

Sleep improvements reduced internalizing and externalizing problems in children overall, but prenatal cannabis exposure moderated this relationship, significantly diminishing the protective effect of sleep on internalizing symptoms..

Patterns of Substance Use During Early Pregnancy and Associations With Behavioral Health Characteristics.

Sujan, Ayesha C · 2023

Four prenatal substance use patterns emerged: predominantly alcohol (9.3%), predominantly cannabis (4.9%), predominantly nicotine with some opioids (1.1%), and high-polysubstance (0.4%).

Prenatal substance use in the rural and Appalachian state: Project WATCH study 2020-2022.

Umer, Amna · 2023

Cannabis was identified as both a standalone prenatal exposure category and a component of multiple polysubstance patterns (cannabis alone, opioids+cannabis, cannabis+stimulants, opioids+cannabis+stimulants) in a population-based birth cohort from West Virginia..

Association of cannabis use during pregnancy with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection: a retrospective cohort study.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2023

Prenatal cannabis use was significantly associated with higher risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy in a large California cohort.

Association between Prenatal Marijuana and Tobacco Smoke Exposures and Small for Gestational Age at Birth.

Abdelwahab, Mahmoud · 2022

Marijuana-only exposure was associated with SGA <10th percentile (43% vs.

Maternal preconception and pregnancy tobacco and cannabis use in relation to placental developmental markers: A population-based study.

Cajachagua-Torres, Kim N · 2022

Cannabis use before and during pregnancy was associated with higher PlGF and lower sFlt-1/PlGF ratio in first and second trimesters.

Foetal tobacco and cannabis exposure, body fat and cardio-metabolic health in childhood.

Cajachagua-Torres, Kim N · 2022

Children exposed to maternal cannabis during pregnancy had higher BMI (0.26 SDS), android/gynoid fat ratio (0.21 SDS), and fat-free mass index (0.24 SDS) at age 10.

Prenatal cannabis exposure predicts attention problems, without changes on fMRI in adolescents.

Cioffredi, Leigh-Anne · 2022

Compared to both control groups, children with prenatal cannabis exposure (PCE) had significantly higher attention problems, externalizing, and total problem scores on the Child Behavior Checklist.

Long-term effects of prenatal cannabis exposure: Pathways to adolescent and adult outcomes.

De Genna, Natacha M · 2022

Across longitudinal studies, prenatal cannabis exposure showed remarkably consistent associations with externalizing behaviors like delinquency and substance use that persisted into adulthood.

Cohort Study of Cannabis Use History and Perinatal Cigarette Use Among Overweight and Obese Women.

De Genna, Natacha M · 2022

History of cannabis use predicted cigarette smoking in early pregnancy (OR 11.12), late pregnancy (OR 6.55), and 6 months postpartum (OR 7.57).

Peri-Pregnancy Cannabis Use and Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Offspring: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development.

DiGuiseppi, Carolyn · 2022

Among children assessed at 30-68 months of age, peri-pregnancy cannabis use was reported for 5.2% of ASD cases, 3.2% of children with other developmental delays, and 4.4% of population controls.

Cannabis and Cannabinoids in Reproduction and Fertility: Where We Stand.

Fonseca, Bruno M · 2022

THC indirectly decreases GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus, leading to disruptions in multiple reproductive hormones.

Individual and Combined Association Between Prenatal Polysubstance Exposure and Childhood Risk of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Garrison-Desany, Henri M · 2022

Opioid exposure during pregnancy had the highest adjusted hazard ratio for ADHD (2.19).

Guideline No. 425b: Cannabis Use Throughout Women's Lifespans - Part 2: Pregnancy, the Postnatal Period, and Breastfeeding.

Graves, Lisa E · 2022

Based on GRADE-assessed evidence, the guideline recommends avoiding cannabis during pregnancy and breastfeeding, or reducing use as much as possible if abstaining is not feasible.

Chronic exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol impacts testicular volume and male reproductive health in rhesus macaques.

Hedges, Jason C · 2022

For each 1 mg/7 kg/day increase in THC dose, bilateral testicular volume decreased by 11.8 cm3.

In utero exposure to cannabidiol disrupts select early-life behaviors in a sex-specific manner.

Iezzi, Daniela · 2022

Male pups from CBD-treated dams gained more weight than controls.

Effect of maternal adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and cannabis use on pregnancy outcomes.

Klasner, Carson · 2022

Cannabis use at delivery was associated with 10% lower birthweight (2665g vs.

Impact of cannabinoids on pregnancy, reproductive health, and offspring outcomes.

Lo, Jamie O · 2022

THC crosses the placenta and has been detected in breast milk.

The effects of cannabis and cannabinoids on the endocrine system.

Meah, Farah · 2022

Key endocrine effects include: reduced female fertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes, reduced sperm counts and function, lower thyroid hormone levels with acute use, blunted stress response with chronic use, increased prediabetes risk but paradoxically lower diabetes risk, suggested improvement in HDL and triglycerides, and modest increase in fracture risk..

Fetal Exposure to Cannabis and Childhood Metabolic Outcomes: The Healthy Start Study.

Moore, Brianna F · 2022

Approximately 15% of mothers had detectable cannabinoids in urine at ~27 weeks gestation.

Prevalence of marijuana use in pregnant women with concurrent opioid use disorder or alcohol use in pregnancy.

Page, Kimberly · 2022

Marijuana prevalence was 43.2% in the OUD group, 52.6% in the combined OUD+Alcohol group, and 46.4% in the Alcohol group.

Chronic prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure adversely impacts placental function and development in a rhesus macaque model.

Roberts, Victoria H J · 2022

THC-exposed pregnancies showed significantly decreased amniotic fluid volume (p<0.001), reduced placental perfusion (p<0.05), and lower fetal oxygen availability (p<0.05).

Is in-utero exposure to cannabis associated with the risk of attention deficit with or without hyperactivity disorder? A cohort study within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort.

Tchuente, Vanina · 2022

After adjusting for potential confounders, no significant association was found between in-utero cannabis exposure (occasional: OR 1.22, 95% CI 0.63-2.19; regular: OR 1.22, 95% CI 0.42-2.79) and the risk of ADHD in children..

Cannabis legalization and cannabis-involved pregnancy hospitalizations in Colorado.

Wang, George Sam · 2022

Cannabis-involved pregnancy hospitalizations increased more than two-fold from 2011-2018.

Geographic Accessibility of Retail Cannabis in Northern California and Prenatal Cannabis Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2022

Prenatal cannabis use before (6.8%) and during (8.2%) the pandemic was associated with closer proximity to a retailer, greater retailer density, and living in jurisdictions that permitted rather than banned storefront retailers.

Dos(e)Age: Role of Dose and Age in the Long-Term Effect of Cannabinoids on Cognition.

Zamberletti, Erica · 2022

Prenatal and adolescent cannabinoid exposure consistently led to long-term cognitive deficits in animal models, while exposure in aged animals showed potential beneficial effects on cognition.

Medical Marijuana Laws, Marijuana Use, and Opioid-Related Outcomes among Women in the United States.

Ali, Mir M · 2021

Medical marijuana laws were not associated with opioid misuse, initiation, or OUD among all women, pregnant women, or parenting women.

Cannabis and synaptic reprogramming of the developing brain.

Bara, Anissa · 2021

Cannabis exposure during prenatal/perinatal and adolescent periods disrupts the endocannabinoid system's role in neurodevelopment, impairing synaptic plasticity.

Parental cannabis and tobacco use during pregnancy and childhood hair cortisol concentrations.

Cajachagua-Torres, Kim N · 2021

Children exposed to cannabis during pregnancy (combined with tobacco) had significantly higher hair cortisol concentrations at age 6 (log-10 difference 0.16, 95% CI 0.04-0.28).

Cannabis alters epigenetic integrity and endocannabinoid signalling in the human follicular niche.

Fuchs Weizman, Noga · 2021

6.4% of patients tested positive for cannabis in follicular fluid.

Evaluation of the impact of marijuana use on semen quality: a prospective analysis.

Hehemann, Marah C · 2021

Current marijuana use was associated with 2.15 times higher odds of abnormal strict morphology and 2.76 times higher odds of low semen volume.

Association between continued cannabis use during pregnancy and symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Mark, Katrina · 2021

Women who continued cannabis use had significantly higher odds of elevated GAD scores (2.55, 95% CI 1.31-4.99) and EPDS depression scores (2.75, 95% CI 1.43-5.28) compared to non-users.

Cannabis use and measurement of cannabinoids in plasma and breast milk of breastfeeding mothers.

Moss, Michael J · 2021

Median breast milk THC concentration was 27.5 ng/ml vs 3.7 ng/ml in plasma, a milk-to-plasma ratio of 7.0.

Behavioral and Cognitive Differences in Early Childhood related to Prenatal Marijuana Exposure.

Murnan, Aaron W · 2021

Compared to non-exposed children, those with prenatal marijuana exposure had significantly more sleep-related problems, withdrawal symptoms, externalizing problems including aggressive behaviors and oppositional defiant behaviors at age 3.5.

Maternal cannabis use is associated with suppression of immune gene networks in placenta and increased anxiety phenotypes in offspring.

Rompala, Gregory · 2021

Children exposed to maternal cannabis had increased hair cortisol levels, greater anxiety, aggression, and hyperactivity on BASC-2 assessments, and reduced vagal tone (high-frequency HRV) at baseline.

The Effect of Marijuana on the Incidence and Evolution of Male Infertility: A Systematic Review.

Srinivasan, Mirra · 2021

Across 15 eligible studies, marijuana use was associated with reduced sperm count, concentration, motility, morphology, capacitation, and viability.

Cannabis use and stressful life events during the perinatal period: cross-sectional results from Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) data, 2016.

Allen, Alicia M · 2020

16.4% of respondents used cannabis pre-pregnancy, with 36.4% continuing during pregnancy.

Cannabis use during pregnancy and postpartum.

Badowski, Sophia · 2020

In utero cannabis exposure has been associated with long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes that persist into young adulthood.

Pregnant Canadians' Perceptions About the Transmission of Cannabis in Pregnancy and While Breastfeeding and the Impact of Information From Health Care Providers on Discontinuation of Use.

Bartlett, Katelyn · 2020

94.3% perceived cannabis is transmitted to the fetus and 91.2% to the infant via breastmilk.

Maternal cannabis use in pregnancy and child neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Corsi, Daniel J · 2020

Autism spectrum disorder incidence was 4.00 per 1,000 person-years among cannabis-exposed children vs.

Update on the developmental consequences of cannabis use during pregnancy and lactation.

Grant, Kimberly S · 2020

Prenatal cannabis exposure was not associated with a unique pattern of birth defects or reductions in global IQ, but specific cognitive skills (attention and memory) were negatively affected.

Marijuana: the effects on pregnancy, the fetus, and the newborn.

Martin, Gilbert I · 2020

The review summarizes evidence that prenatal cannabis exposure is associated with lower birth weight, neonatal effects, and developmental delays during the first two years of life.

Cannabis use during pregnancy and its relationship with fetal developmental outcomes and psychiatric disorders. A systematic review.

Roncero, Carlos · 2020

Cannabis use among pregnant women is common (~5% or more), with risk factors including younger age, lower education, and concurrent tobacco/alcohol use.

Sperm DNA methylation altered by THC and nicotine: Vulnerability of neurodevelopmental genes with bivalent chromatin.

Schrott, Rose · 2020

THC exposure via oral gavage altered DNA methylation at seven neurodevelopmentally active genes in rat sperm.

Cannabis use is associated with potentially heritable widespread changes in autism candidate gene DLGAP2 DNA methylation in sperm.

Schrott, Rose · 2020

Using RRBS, cannabis use was associated with significant hypomethylation of the autism-linked gene DLGAP2 in human sperm.

Paternal Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure Prior to Mating Elicits Deficits in Cholinergic Synaptic Function in the Offspring.

Slotkin, Theodore A · 2020

After 28 days of THC exposure (0, 2, or 4 mg/kg/day) in male rats, followed by mating with drug-naive females, offspring showed dose-dependent decreases in hemicholinium-3 binding (presynaptic acetylcholine activity) with regionally selective increases in choline acetyltransferase.

Prenatal cannabis exposure and sleep outcomes in children 9-10 years of age in the adolescent brain cognitive development SM study.

Winiger, Evan A · 2020

Any prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep, disorders of arousal, sleep-wake disorders, disorders of excessive somnolence, and a summed sleep disorder score (all p<0.03).

Women's Questions About Perinatal Cannabis Use and Health Care Providers' Responses.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2020

The most common questions concerned drug test detection (24.7%), fertility effects (22.6%), fetal harms (21.3%), and breastfeeding exposure (14.4%).

What Every Pediatric Gynecologist Should Know About Marijuana Use in Adolescents.

Chadi, Nicholas · 2019

Despite limited research specifically on gynecological conditions, the many risks of adolescent marijuana use include negative effects on developing brains, adverse reproductive outcomes (menstrual irregularities, pregnancy complications), risky sexual behavior, and mental health problems.

Cannabinoid exposure during pregnancy and its impact on immune function.

Dong, Catherine · 2019

Cannabinoids mediate robust immunomodulation by altering cytokine levels, causing apoptosis of lymphoid cells, and inducing suppressor cells.

Cannabis: An ancient friend or foe? What works and doesn't work.

Henschke, Philip · 2019

The endocannabinoid system is critical for brain development across fetal, infant, and adolescent stages.

Prenatal cannabinoid exposure and altered neurotransmission.

Pinky, Priyanka D · 2019

Prenatal cannabinoid exposure alters multiple neurotransmitter systems including dopamine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and opioid systems.

Impacts of cannabinoid epigenetics on human development: reflections on Murphy et. al. 'cannabinoid exposure and altered DNA methylation in rat and human sperm' epigenetics 2018; 13: 1208-1221.

Reece, Albert Stuart · 2019

Building on the Murphy et al.

Marijuana Use in Pregnancy: A Review.

Thompson, Rebecca · 2019

THC readily crosses the placenta, and cannabinoid receptors have been identified in fetal brain and placenta.

Maternal and paternal cannabis use during pregnancy and the risk of psychotic-like experiences in the offspring.

Bolhuis, Koen · 2018

Researchers followed 3,692 children from the Generation R birth cohort to examine whether parental cannabis use during pregnancy affected the risk of psychotic-like experiences at age 10.

Cannabis Use During the Perinatal Period in a State With Legalized Recreational and Medical Marijuana: The Association Between Maternal Characteristics, Breastfeeding Patterns, and Neonatal Outcomes.

Crume, Tessa L · 2018

Researchers analyzed data from 3,207 Colorado women who completed the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System survey with state-added cannabis questions.

Recommendations From Cannabis Dispensaries About First-Trimester Cannabis Use.

Dickson, Betsy · 2018

Researchers used a mystery caller approach to contact 400 randomly selected Colorado dispensaries.

Pre- and postnatal tobacco and cannabis exposure and child behavior problems: Bidirectional associations, joint effects, and sex differences.

Eiden, Rina D · 2018

Researchers followed 247 low-income mothers and their children from pregnancy through age 3, tracking prenatal substance exposure and child behavior problems. Prenatal tobacco exposure showed stronger effects in girls: girls in the tobacco-exposed group had higher internalizing problems, anxiety/depression, and attention problems compared to other groups.

Marijuana Use in Pregnancy and While Breastfeeding.

Metz, Torri D · 2018

Researchers reviewed the literature on marijuana use during pregnancy and breastfeeding, published in a major obstetrics journal. Key findings: - Marijuana crosses the placenta and is present in breast milk, directly exposing the fetus and nursing infant. - The endocannabinoid system plays important roles in implantation, placentation, and fetal neurologic development, making disruption biologically plausible. - Two recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses found associations between marijuana use and adverse perinatal outcomes, especially with heavy use. - Three longitudinal cohort studies demonstrated possible effects of prenatal exposure on long-term neurobehavioral outcomes in children. - Marijuana use may be associated with growth restriction, stillbirth, spontaneous preterm birth, and NICU admission. - Many women cited medical reasons for prenatal use: nausea/vomiting, anxiety, and chronic pain. Limitations acknowledged: most studies are retrospective, rely on self-report (which underestimates use), and many fail to adequately control for tobacco and sociodemographic confounders. Despite these limitations, the authors recommended women refrain from marijuana during pregnancy and lactation..

Cannabinoid exposure and altered DNA methylation in rat and human sperm.

Murphy, Susan K · 2018

Researchers compared DNA methylation in sperm from human cannabis users versus non-users, and from THC-exposed versus unexposed rats. In human sperm, cannabis users differed from non-users by at least 10% methylation at 3,979 CpG sites. Pathway analysis identified Hippo Signaling and Pathways in Cancer as enriched with altered genes (Bonferroni p < 0.02).

High times for cannabis: Epigenetic imprint and its legacy on brain and behavior.

Szutorisz, Henrietta · 2018

Cannabinoid exposure during critical developmental periods creates epigenetic changes (modifications to how genes are read) that persist long after exposure ends.

Marijuana Use in Pregnancy: Concerns in an Evolving Era.

Foeller, Megan E · 2017

Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug during pregnancy, and its use is increasing in the US.

Cannabis use by women during pregnancy does not influence infant DNA methylation of the dopamine receptor DRD4.

Fransquet, Peter D · 2017

Among 804 neonates whose mothers provided detailed trimester-by-trimester drug use information, 44 were exposed to maternal cannabis use during pregnancy.

Assessment of tobacco, alcohol and cannabinoid metabolites in 645 meconium samples of newborns compared to maternal self-reports.

Lamy, Sandrine · 2017

This study compared what mothers reported about their substance use during pregnancy with what objective testing of their newborns' meconium (first stool) actually revealed. For tobacco, meconium cotinine testing agreed well with maternal self-reports (Kappa = 0.79), and meconium testing actually predicted neonatal consequences of tobacco exposure better than self-reports alone. For cannabis and alcohol, the story was different.

Family Physicians' Perceived Prevalence, Safety, and Screening for Cigarettes, Marijuana, and Electronic-Nicotine Delivery Systems (ENDS) Use during Pregnancy.

Northrup, Thomas F · 2017

This survey of 417 US family physicians providing labor and delivery care revealed a gap between awareness and action regarding substance use during pregnancy. Physicians estimated that roughly 6-25% of their pregnant patients used cigarettes (54% of doctors), marijuana (49%), and electronic cigarettes (24%).

Pediatric Concerns Due to Expanded Cannabis Use: Unintended Consequences of Legalization.

Wang, George Sam · 2017

The review identified cannabis legalization's impact on children across four developmental stages. Prenatal: Cannabis remains one of the most commonly used substances during pregnancy, with increasing use as legalization normalizes cannabis.

Prenatal, perinatal, and adolescent exposure to marijuana: Relationships with aggressive behavior.

Barthelemy, Olivier J · 2016

This review examined the evidence linking marijuana exposure at three developmental periods (prenatal, perinatal, and adolescent) to aggressive behavior. For prenatal exposure, the evidence provided minimal support for a direct relationship with aggressive behavior in childhood.

Use of cannabis during pregnancy and birth outcomes in an Aboriginal birth cohort: a cross-sectional, population-based study.

Brown, Stephanie J · 2016

Researchers surveyed 344 Aboriginal women giving birth in South Australia to assess whether cannabis use during pregnancy was associated with adverse birth outcomes. One in five women (20.5%) used cannabis during pregnancy, and 52% smoked cigarettes.

The endocannabinoid system: A novel player in human placentation.

Costa, M A · 2016

This review examined how the endocannabinoid system participates in normal human placenta development and how cannabis use may disrupt this process. The endocannabinoid system is expressed in human placentas and plays roles in trophoblast cell proliferation, apoptosis (programmed cell death), differentiation, and function.

Prenatal marijuana exposure impacts executive functioning into young adulthood: An fMRI study.

Smith, Andra M · 2016

Thirty-one young adults (ages 18-22) from the Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study, a long-running longitudinal study, underwent fMRI during four executive function tasks: visuospatial working memory, response inhibition, verbal working memory, and interference control. Sixteen had been prenatally exposed to marijuana while 15 had not.

Epigenetic Effects of Cannabis Exposure.

Szutorisz, Henrietta · 2016

This review examined the emerging field of cannabis epigenetics, where researchers study how cannabis exposure changes gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself. Accumulating evidence from both human and animal studies showed that cannabinoids can modify epigenetic marks, including DNA methylation and histone modifications, in brain tissue and peripheral cells.

Antimüllerian hormone in relation to tobacco and marijuana use and sources of indoor heating/cooking.

White, Alexandra J · 2016

Researchers examined whether exposure to combustion products from tobacco, marijuana, and indoor heating sources affected antimullerian hormone (AMH) levels, a biomarker of ovarian reserve (the number of remaining eggs). Heavy tobacco smoking (20+ cigarettes/day) was associated with a 56.2% reduction in AMH levels compared to nonsmokers.

Marijuana, phytocannabinoids, the endocannabinoid system, and male fertility.

du Plessis, Stefan S · 2015

This review compiled evidence on how cannabis affects male reproductive function through the endocannabinoid system (ECS).

Marijuana use in pregnancy and lactation: a review of the evidence.

Metz, Torri D · 2015

This review examined the evidence on marijuana use during pregnancy and lactation, noting that 3-30% of pregnant women use marijuana depending on the population studied. THC freely crosses the placenta and is found in breast milk.

Cannabis, the pregnant woman and her child: weeding out the myths.

Jaques, S C · 2014

This review summarized knowledge about cannabis use in pregnancy, including pharmacology, placental transfer, and developmental effects.

The manifold actions of endocannabinoids on female and male reproductive events.

Bari, Monica · 2011

The review traced the role of endocannabinoids in reproductive biology across the evolutionary spectrum from invertebrates to mammals. In females, chronic THC exposure was found to disrupt the menstrual cycle, suppress egg development (oogenesis), and impair embryo implantation and development.

Maternal cannabis use alters ventral striatal dopamine D2 gene regulation in the offspring.

DiNieri, Jennifer A · 2011

This study combined human fetal tissue analysis with a rat model to investigate how prenatal cannabis exposure affects the developing brain's reward system. In human fetal subjects, prenatal cannabis exposure specifically decreased dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene expression in the nucleus accumbens, the brain's key reward region.

Molecular mechanisms of maternal cannabis and cigarette use on human neurodevelopment.

Morris, Claudia V · 2011

The review examined molecular mechanisms through which prenatal cannabis and cigarette exposure disrupted brain development. Prenatal cannabis exposure specifically altered dopamine D2 receptor gene expression in the fetal brain's reward center (nucleus accumbens), potentially through epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation and histone modification.

Correlates of smoking cessation at pregnancy onset among Hispanic women in Massachusetts.

Haskins, Amy · 2010

Researchers examined factors associated with quitting smoking at pregnancy onset in 351 Hispanic (predominantly Puerto Rican) women from Massachusetts. 45% of women quit smoking when they learned they were pregnant. Women who used marijuana before pregnancy were significantly less likely to quit smoking (23-49% less likely in multivariate analyses).

Differential regulation of endocannabinoid synthesis and degradation in the uterus during embryo implantation.

Wang, Haibin · 2007

Researchers mapped the endocannabinoid system in the mouse uterus during embryo implantation, focusing on both anandamide and 2-AG. 2-AG was present at levels one order of magnitude (roughly 10x) higher than anandamide in the uterus, but both showed the same spatial pattern: lower levels at implantation sites and higher levels at interimplantation sites. These gradients were created by region- and stage-specific expression of four key enzymes: NAPE-PLD and FAAH (for anandamide synthesis and breakdown) and DAGLalpha and MAGL (for 2-AG synthesis and breakdown).

Effects of prenatal marijuana on visuospatial working memory: an fMRI study in young adults.

Smith, Andra M · 2006

Researchers scanned 31 participants from the Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study (16 prenatally exposed to cannabis, 15 non-exposed) at age 18-22 using fMRI during a visuospatial working memory task.

Effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the primary psychoactive cannabinoid in marijuana, on human sperm function in vitro.

Whan, Lynne B · 2006

Researchers exposed human sperm from 78 men to THC at concentrations equivalent to therapeutic (0.032 microM), moderate recreational (0.32 microM), and heavy recreational (4.8 microM) plasma levels for 3 hours. In the best-quality sperm fraction (90% density), progressive motility decreased by 2-21% dose-dependently (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001).

The safety of cannabinoids for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

Smith, Paul F · 2005

This review assessed the safety profile of cannabis-based medicinal extracts (CBMEs) for MS treatment.

Effects of prenatal marijuana on response inhibition: an fMRI study of young adults.

Smith, Andra M · 2004

Using fMRI, 31 young adults from the Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study showed that greater prenatal marijuana exposure was associated with increased neural activity in bilateral prefrontal cortex and right premotor cortex during response inhibition tasks.

Growth from birth to early adolescence in offspring prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marijuana.

Fried, P A · 1999

Researchers tracked weight, height, and head circumference from birth through early adolescence in children whose prenatal marijuana and cigarette exposure had been documented. Prenatal cigarette exposure produced clear effects at birth, with lower weight, but these differences disappeared within the first few years as children caught up.

Reading and language in 9- to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marijuana.

Fried, P A · 1997

Researchers examined reading and language abilities in 131 children aged 9-12 who were part of a longitudinal study tracking prenatal drug exposure from a predominantly middle-class population. Prenatal cigarette exposure showed a dose-dependent association with lower language and reading scores, even after controlling for potential confounders.

Health aspects of cannabis.

Hollister, L E · 1986

This extensive review examined cannabis health effects across virtually every organ system and population group. The review's central concern was youth: regular cannabis use might stunt emotional growth in adolescents, though whether the drug caused these effects or whether at-risk youth were drawn to use remained unclear.

Maternal risk factors associated with complex gastroschisis: Cannabis exposure and recurrent urinary tract infections may be modifiable targets.

Awolaran, Olugbenga · 2026

After adjusting for other substance exposures, cannabis use was associated with complex gastroschisis (adjusted OR=2.64), and recurrent urinary tract infections showed an even stronger association (RaR=3.78) — both identified as potentially modifiable risk factors..

Feasibility and acceptability of a physical activity intervention to reduce prenatal cannabis use: results of an open pilot trial.

Battle, Cynthia L · 2026

Prenatal cannabis use dropped from 62.5% at baseline to 16.6% by 36 weeks gestation; daily steps increased from 5,738 to 6,562; anxiety and depression significantly decreased; 88% retention rate with mean 5.8/6 sessions attended..

Adult Rat Offspring Exposed to THC during Gestation Exhibit Distinct Biomolecular Changes Identified by X-ray Fluorescence Imaging and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy in Cortico-Limbic Circuits.

Black, Tallan · 2026

Most prenatal cannabis studies measure outcomes at the behavioral or anatomical level.

Impact of prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure on mouse brain development: a fetal-to-adulthood magnetic resonance imaging study.

Cupo, Lani · 2026

Using MRI brain scans at nine timepoints from gestation through adulthood, researchers tracked what happened to mouse brains after prenatal THC exposure.

Prenatal Cannabis and Tobacco: Studies in Animal Models.

Edenfield, R Clayton · 2026

This comprehensive review synthesized animal model research on prenatal exposure to both cannabis (primarily THC) and tobacco (primarily nicotine).

Building the Mountain Mama and Baby Cohort: Study Design, Protocol, and Early Prenatal Clinic-based Recruitment Outcomes.

Gibbs, Bethany Barone · 2026

The Mountain Mama & Baby Study established a prospective cohort of pregnant women in West Virginia, enrolling participants during their first-trimester telehealth visits with nurse navigators.

Investigating Links Between Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and Brain Development Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques: A Narrative Review.

Gonçalves, Priscila Dib · 2026

Across 9 studies meeting criteria, prenatal cannabis exposure was linked to structural and functional brain differences spanning from in utero to adolescence across multiple MRI modalities, but no consistent trend could be identified due to wide methodological variation..

Placental transfer and vasoactivity of cannabidiol: beware of rapid oxidation.

Harhangi, M S · 2026

CBD achieved a fetal/maternal ratio of 0.32 ± 0.23 and dilated healthy placental arteries by 36 ± 4% via CB1 and CB2 receptors, while THC induced vasoconstriction in the presence of CB1 receptor blockade — but CBD's rapid oxidation (>80% loss in 30 minutes) complicates in vivo predictions..

Identifying established human placental markers of schizophrenia in rodents after gestational ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure†.

Kocsis, Andrea M · 2026

This study tested whether prenatal THC exposure in rats would alter the same placental genes that human genomic studies have linked to schizophrenia risk.

Cannabinoid receptor type 1 deficiency protects from lipopolysaccharide-induced preterm birth: the role of the decidual endocannabinoid system.

Marvaldi, Carolina · 2026

CB1-knockout mice showed significantly lower preterm birth rates compared to wild-type when exposed to LPS-induced inflammation.

Cannabis smoke extract disrupts trophoblast differentiation and causes mitochondrial dysfunction beyond the effects of Δ9-THC alone.

Monaco, Cristina · 2026

Cannabis smoke extract (CaSE) reduced markers of placental cell maturation (hCG protein and syncytin-1 gene expression) and caused dose-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction.

Cannabis Use Behaviors and Desired Interventions Among Postpartum Individuals With Frequent Cannabis Use in Early Pregnancy: A Qualitative Study.

Ogden, Shannon N · 2026

Of 17 postpartum patients who used cannabis daily or weekly in early pregnancy, 15 reported postpartum cannabis use and 10 reported use while breastfeeding.

Melatonin mitigates hormonal toxicity in cannabis-treated female Wistar rats: involvement of cannabinoid receptor.

Oluwasola, A · 2026

Cannabis extract significantly altered levels of GnRH, FSH, LH, estradiol, progesterone, and prolactin in female rats.

Prenatal and early postnatal cannabis exposure interactions with adolescent chronic stress on anxiety-like, depression-like, and risk-taking behaviour.

Peterson, Colleen S · 2026

Prenatal cannabis exposure alone did not significantly affect anxiety, stress coping, or social behavior.

Effects of prenatal cannabis exposure on offspring mental health: A focus on the role of the immune system.

Vecchiarelli, Haley A · 2026

In both human and rodent studies using vaporized exposure, cannabis use during pregnancy was associated with reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in the placenta.

Sexually Dimorphic Effects of a Single Neonatal Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure on Neuronal Dendritic Morphology and Cognitive Functions in Rats.

Wadhwa, Meetu · 2026

Rat pups received a single injection of THC (5 mg/kg) or vehicle at postnatal day 3 — a period corresponding to late pregnancy/early postnatal brain development in humans.

Prenatal Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure Induces Transcriptional Alterations in Dopaminergic System with Associated Electrophysiological Dysregulation in the Prefrontal Cortex of Adolescent Rats.

Di Bartolomeo, Martina · 2025

Prenatal cannabis exposure increased mRNA levels of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in the prefrontal cortex, with a particularly strong effect on D2 in males.

Perception of Risks of Cannabis and Cannabidiol Use during Pregnancy: A Multi-Methods Study.

Goodin, Amie · 2025

Among 261 women surveyed, there was no significant difference between pregnant and non-pregnant participants in how they perceived the risks of cannabis or CBD use during pregnancy.

Mistrust Limits Possibilities for Patient-Provider Discussions Regarding Cannabis Use During Pregnancy.

Gould, Heather · 2025

Most of the 34 interview participants reported that healthcare providers never initiated conversations about cannabis use.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome in pregnancy: a case series and review.

Hanley, Sarah · 2025

Two cases of CHS in pregnancy were described.

Embryotoxicity Evaluation of Novel Synthetic Cannabinoid 4F-MDMB-BUTICA Using Zebrafish Embryos.

Kullebi, Berşan · 2025

LC50: 1.932 mg/L; EC50: 0.960 mg/L at 120 hours.

The effects of cannabidiol and its main metabolites on human neural stem cells.

Latham, Leah E · 2025

CBD, 7-OH-CBD, and 7-COOH-CBD all dose-dependently reduced NSC viability.

Maternal dietary DHA and EPA supplementation ameliorates adverse cardiac outcomes in THC-exposed rat offspring.

Lee, Kendrick · 2025

Maternal THC exposure led to decreased birthweight and early cardiac deficits in offspring.

Recommendations From Arizona Budtenders to Mystery Callers Regarding Morning Sickness.

Madson, Michael J · 2025

71.2% of budtenders recommended cannabis products for morning sickness, particularly CBD products and edibles.

Tobacco and cannabis use among pregnant women with prenatal opioid use.

Mahabee-Gittens, E Melinda · 2025

Tobacco use remained consistently high across all trimesters (no significant decline, p=0.28), including e-cigarette products (p=0.18).

The synthetic cannabinoids ADB-FUBINACA and AMB-FUBINACA enhance in vitro neurodifferentiation of NG108-15 cells, along with PGC-1α dysregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Malheiro, Rui Filipe · 2025

Both synthetic cannabinoids enhanced neurite outgrowth at biologically relevant concentrations below 1 micromolar.

Personality-based intergenerational effects of prenatal THC exposure in an inherited mouse model of social dominance and submissiveness.

Mari, Mohamed · 2025

In selectively bred dominant mice, prenatal THC exposure reduced body weight and increased anxiety-like behaviors.

Mental health clinicians' perceptions on patient motivations and intervention engagement for prenatal cannabis use: A mixed methods study.

Mian, Maha N · 2025

Among 26 perinatal mental health clinicians, nausea/morning sickness was identified as the most common motive for prenatal cannabis use.

Activation of cannabinoid receptor CB1 leads to aberrant myelination in development.

Miramontes, Tania G · 2025

A cannabinoid agonist (WIN 55,212-2) caused oligodendrocytes to wrap myelin around neuronal cell bodies instead of only axons in developing zebrafish spinal cords.

The role of cannabinoid agonists and antagonists on folliculogenesis and evolutionary events in the mouse ovary.

Mirzaie, Vida · 2025

CB2 receptor blocking increased primary, preantral, and antral follicles along with ovarian volume, weight, and estrogen levels.

A Hidden Mark of a Troubled Past: Neuroimaging and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal Interactive Effects of Maternal Immune Activation and Adolescent THC Exposure Suggestive of Increased Neuropsychiatric Risk.

Moreno-Fernández, Mario · 2025

While adolescent THC did not trigger visible behavioral disruptions, PET brain scans revealed alterations dependent on the combination of prenatal immune activation and THC.

The role of endocannabinoid signaling in the cytoskeleton functionality in migrating neurons.

Morozov, Yury M · 2025

About 40% of migrating neurons in both CB1 receptor knockout mice and wild-type mice exposed to cannabinoid agonists showed nuclear envelope ruptures or "piercing nuclear hernias" (PNH), a novel form of cell pathology.

Cannabidiol modulates brain molecular alterations, gut microbiota dysbiosis and alcohol self-administration in a mouse model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder.

Navarrete, F · 2025

Mice with prenatal alcohol exposure showed increased anxiety and depression-like behavior, sex-dependent changes in brain receptors and neurotransmitters, and gut microbiota dysbiosis.

Concurrent maternal stress and THC exposure during pregnancy alters adolescent behavioral outcomes and corticolimbic molecular programs.

Olusakin, Jimmy · 2025

All exposure groups (THC alone, stress alone, combined) showed impaired maternal behavior, with additive effects in the combined group.

Prenatal cannabinoid exposure affects central cardiorespiratory control in young male and female rats.

Patrone, Luis Gustavo A · 2025

Prenatal cannabinoid exposure (WIN 55,212-2) caused lasting impairments in cardiorespiratory control in juvenile rats.

Timing matters: modeling the effects of gestational cannabis exposure on social behavior and microglia in the developing amygdala.

Pham, Aidan L · 2025

Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug during pregnancy, with rates rising as legalization expands.

Timing matters: modeling the effects of gestational cannabis exposure on social behavior and microglia in the developing amygdala.

Pham, Aidan L · 2025

Postnatal THC exposure (modeling late pregnancy) produced sex-specific changes in microglial phagocytosis during brain development and altered social behavior during the juvenile period.

A retrospective medical record audit of the management of cannabis-related emergency department presentations, hospital admissions and hyperemesis of pregnant women who self-reported non-medicinal cannabis use to a substance use in parenting and pregnancy service.

Qian, Siyu · 2025

Among 75 pregnant SUPPS patients with cannabis as primary drug of concern, their 232 ED presentations and 183 hospital admissions revealed significant gaps: cannabis use history was documented in only 34% of ED visits and 53% of admissions.

The impact of oral cannabis consumption during pregnancy on maternal spiral artery remodelling, fetal growth and offspring behaviour in mice.

Ritchie, Tyrah M · 2025

Oral CBD and THC (20 mg/kg) from early to mid-gestation both impaired maternal spiral artery remodeling and fetal growth.

Sex differences in the effects of maternal voluntary oral Cannabis consumption on the metabolic outcomes of high-fat diet in adult offspring.

Sallam, Nada A · 2025

Pregnant mice consumed cannabis extract (5 mg/kg THC daily) from early gestation through postnatal day 10.

Effects of maternal edible THC consumption on offspring lung growth and function in a rhesus macaque model.

Shorey-Kendrick, Lyndsey E · 2025

THC-exposed infant macaques had significantly reduced forced residual capacity, along with decreased total lung capacity, lung diffusion capacity, and lower fetal lung perfusion on prenatal MRI.

Mothers Marketing to Mothers: An Exploration of Cannabis Use and Constructions of Motherhood on Instagram and Blog Posts.

Smith, Tanner M · 2025

Three themes emerged: (1) normalizing cannabis by comparing it favorably to alcohol and pharmaceuticals, (2) positioning cannabis as responsible, personalized wellness consumption, and (3) framing cannabis as a tool to achieve motherhood ideals including thinness, productivity, mental wellness, and engaged parenting.

Changes in prenatal cannabis use and perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Sokol, Natasha A · 2025

During vs.

Evaluating Household Income and Tobacco Exposure as Moderators of the Association Between Prenatal Cannabis Exposure and Newborn Neurobehavior.

Stanfield, Jocelyn · 2025

No significant main effects of prenatal cannabis use or COOH-THC levels on newborn neurobehavior were found.

Evidence on the effect of in-utero cannabis exposure in neonates.

Thayyil, Basel · 2025

This review synthesizes the accumulating evidence on what happens when a developing fetus is exposed to cannabis—a question of increasing urgency as both cannabis use during pregnancy and THC potency rise simultaneously. The pharmacological reality is concerning.

'It Helped to Calm Me': Perspectives on Cannabis Use During Pregnancy and Parenting from Certified Patients in Pennsylvania.

Valdez, Elizabeth S · 2025

Patients used cannabis for pregnancy nausea and qualifying conditions.

Effects of Phytocannabinoids on Reproductive System and Prenatal Development: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications.

Wesołowski, Michał · 2025

This review maps how cannabinoids interact with the reproductive system from conception through birth, covering territory that's usually examined in separate studies. For men: cannabinoids interfere with spermatogenesis, reduce sperm motility and quality, and lower testosterone levels.

Neurodevelopmental effects of exogenous cannabinoids on endocannabinoid and GABAergic neurotransmission.

Wiley, Miles T · 2025

This review presents a fascinating and underappreciated mechanism by which prenatal cannabis could affect brain development: the GABA switch. Here's the background: during early brain development, GABA—which becomes the brain's primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in adults—actually functions as an excitatory signal.

Assessment of the effects of cannabidiol and a CBD-rich hemp extract in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Camacho, Jessica A · 2024

CBD delayed developmental milestone acquisition irreversibly when exposure began at the onset of feeding, while locomotor effects were reversible after removing CBD.

Prenatal tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol exposure produce sex-specific pathophysiological phenotypes in the adolescent prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.

DeVuono, Marieka V · 2024

Prenatal THC and CBD exposure (alone and combined) caused low birth weight and sex-specific changes in adolescent rats: altered anxiety, temporal order memory, social cognition, and sensorimotor gating.

"I don't need my kid to be high": prioritizing harm reduction when using cannabis during pregnancy.

Gould, Erin E · 2024

Three themes emerged for how pregnant cannabis users modified their behavior: (1) changing the amount of cannabis used (reducing frequency or quantity), (2) changing types of products (switching from smoking to edibles, topicals, or lower-THC products), and (3) changing procurement sources (seeking regulated dispensaries over illicit sources).

Use of cannabis to manage symptoms of mental and physical health conditions during pregnancy: analysis of a pro-cannabis pregnancy forum.

Gunn, Rachel L · 2024

Analysis of 120 posts from a pro-cannabis pregnancy forum identified four themes: cannabis for mental health symptoms (depression, anxiety), physical symptoms (nausea, pain), achieving homeostasis and stress management, and decision-making about cannabis versus prescription medications..

Perceptions and Prevalence of Cannabis Use in Women With Inflammatory Bowel Disease of Reproductive Age: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Hossein-Javaheri, Nariman · 2024

Among 102 women with IBD aged 18-45, 18.6% reported cannabis use.

Evaluation of three-year neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants prenatally exposed to substance use.

Jarque, Pilar · 2024

Among 32 prenatally exposed and 32 matched control infants assessed at 36 months using the Bayley Scales, exposed infants scored significantly lower in cognitive, motor, and language domains.

Endocannabinoid regulation in the cervix during pregnancy: insights into molecular mechanisms of premature labor.

Marvaldi, Carolina · 2024

Anandamide and 2-AG increased in the cervix of pregnant mice.

Interpersonal Influences on the Choice to Treat Nausea during Pregnancy with Medication or Cannabis.

Mercer, Amanda H · 2024

Four stakeholder groups influenced treatment decisions: medical providers, partners, family, and friends.

Effects of in utero delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure on fetal and infant musculoskeletal development in a preclinical nonhuman primate model.

Moellmer, Samantha A · 2024

RNA analysis of fetal and infant skeletal muscle using a 770-gene neuroinflammatory panel revealed that prenatal THC exposure had narrow overall effects on muscle development.

Fetal Cannabinoid Syndrome: Behavioral and Brain Alterations of the Offspring Exposed to Dronabinol during Gestation and Lactation.

Navarro, Daniela · 2024

Offspring exposed to dronabinol (10 mg/kg twice daily) from gestational day 5 through postnatal day 21 displayed increased anxiogenic and depressive-like behaviors, cognitive impairment, disrupted reward system function, and increased alcohol consumption motivation at postnatal day 60.

Long-term effects on cardiorespiratory and behavioral responses in male and female rats prenatally exposed to cannabinoid.

Patrone, Luis Gustavo A · 2024

Males showed increased chemosensitivity to CO2 and O2, while females exhibited decreased sensitivity.

Vaporized Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure in utero has negative effects on attention in a dose- and sex-dependent manner.

Penman, Samantha L · 2024

Rats exposed to low-dose vaporized THC (10 mg) during pregnancy showed significantly decreased object exploration in both novel object recognition and object-based attention tests, indicating reduced attention.

Oral pre- and early postnatal cannabis exposure disinhibits ventral tegmental area dopamine neuron activity but does not influence cocaine preference in offspring in mice.

Peterson, Colleen S · 2024

Male offspring had decreased GABAergic input, depolarized resting membrane potential, and increased spontaneous firing of VTA dopamine neurons.

Perceptions, barriers, and facilitators of cannabis screening during pregnancy and labor: A qualitative study.

Skelton, K · 2024

Women reported mixed perceptions of cannabis harm during pregnancy, often framing it as medicine or acknowledging addiction.

Prenatal broad-spectrum cannabidiol administration prevents an autism-like phenotype in male offspring from a maternal stress/terbutaline rat model.

Taylor, Jeremy A · 2024

Broad-spectrum CBD oil (10 mg/kg/day, THC-free) administered to pregnant rats during embryonic days 3-16 significantly reduced all three core ASD-related behavioral measures in male offspring from a neuroinflammation-based ASD model: decreased vocalizations when alone (social communication), fewer marbles buried (repetitive behavior), and increased time with a novel peer (social interaction)..

Sex-specific maladaptive responses to acute stress upon in utero THC exposure are mediated by dopamine.

Valeria, Serra · 2024

Only male offspring prenatally exposed to THC showed a compromised balance of stress hormone receptors (mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid) in the ventral tegmental area, alongside stress-induced disruption of sensorimotor gating (PPI).

Gestational exposure to cannabidiol leads to glucose intolerance in 3-month-old male offspring.

Vanin, Sebastian R · 2024

Daily prenatal CBD (3 mg/kg from gestational day 6 to birth) produced no observable changes in maternal or neonatal outcomes.

Reported Reasons for Cannabis Use Before and After Pregnancy Recognition.

Besse, Margaret · 2023

Of 105 pregnant respondents who screened positive for cannabis, 40 (38%) reported complete abstinence after pregnancy recognition while 65 (62%) continued use.

Characterization of cannabinoid plasma concentration, maternal health, and cytokine levels in a rat model of prenatal Cannabis smoke exposure.

Black, Tallan · 2023

Pregnant rats exposed to high-THC or high-CBD cannabis smoke from gestational day 6-20 showed different inflammatory profiles than those receiving injected THC or CBD.

CBD enhances the cognitive score of adolescent rats prenatally exposed to THC and fine-tunes relevant effectors of hippocampal plasticity.

Castelli, Valentina · 2023

Prenatal THC exposure (2 mg/kg, gestational days 5-20) impaired spatial and configural memory and disrupted hippocampal plasticity markers in adolescent rats.

Legislation has Changed But Issues Remain: Provider Perceptions of Caring for People Who Use Cannabis During Pregnancy in Safety Net Health Settings, a Qualitative Pilot Study.

Ceasar, Rachel Carmen · 2023

Interviews with 10 maternal health providers revealed three patterns: relying on self-education due to lack of formal training, taking case-by-case approaches rather than following standardized protocols, and actively avoiding cannabis discussions to maintain patient alliances.

Factors associated with ever using cannabidiol in a cohort of younger pregnant people.

De Genna, Natacha M · 2023

Among 186 pregnant participants under age 22 (75% Black or Biracial), approximately one in five had ever used CBD products.

Effects of prenatal exposure to THC on hippocampal neural development in offspring.

Peng, Hao · 2023

THC administration during gestational days 5.5-12.5 altered neuronal cell composition in offspring hippocampus at PND21.

Prenatal Cannabinoid Exposure Elicits Memory Deficits Associated with Reduced PSA-NCAM Expression, Altered Glutamatergic Signaling, and Adaptations in Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity.

Pinky, Priyanka D · 2023

Prenatal WIN55,212-2 caused hippocampal-dependent memory deficits in adolescent offspring associated with decreased long-term potentiation, enhanced long-term depression, and imbalanced GluN2A/GluN2B signaling.

Repeated Exposure to High-THC Cannabis Smoke during Gestation Alters Sex Ratio, Behavior, and Amygdala Gene Expression of Sprague Dawley Rat Offspring.

Sandini, Thaisa M · 2023

Cannabis smoke exposure during pregnancy caused a significant increase in male-to-female ratio in litters.

Marijuana and Breastfeeding: A Pilot Survey of Mothers.

Crowley, Hannah R · 2022

57% of mothers reported ever using marijuana and 13% used within the past year.

Making a joint decision: Cannabis as a potential substitute for opioids in obstetrics and gynecology.

Eichorn, Nicole L · 2022

Reports suggest cannabis use is associated with decreased opioid consumption in conditions including ovarian, uterine, endometrial, and cervical cancers, as well as chronic pelvic pain.

Cannabis significantly alters DNA methylation of the human ovarian follicle in a concentration-dependent manner.

Fuchs Weizman, Noga · 2022

Among 14 matched case-control patients, cannabis-exposed ovarian follicle cells showed 3,679 differentially methylated DNA sites, with two-thirds affecting coding genes.

Patient caught breastfeeding and instructed to stop: an empirical ethics study on marijuana and lactation.

Gross, Marielle S · 2022

Medical records revealed punitive language like "patient caught breastfeeding and instructed to stop." While plausible harms from breastmilk THC exposure exist, evidence of actual infant effects is limited and confounded.

"Ganja Mamas": Online discussions about cannabis use in pregnancy.

Lebron, Cynthia N · 2022

Analysis of 151 messages and 1,260 comments from a pregnancy cannabis forum found that testing and child protective services were the top concerns, with members actively interviewing each other about geographic-specific experiences..

Prenatal THC Exposure Induces Sex-Dependent Neuropsychiatric Endophenotypes in Offspring and Long-Term Disruptions in Fatty-Acid Signaling Pathways Directly in the Mesolimbic Circuitry.

Sarikahya, Mohammed H · 2022

Prenatal THC exposure induced lasting behavioral and neuronal changes in male and female rat offspring resembling neuropsychiatric conditions, with profound disruption of fatty acid pathways in the developing brain..

Cannabis alters DNA methylation at maternally imprinted and autism candidate genes in spermatogenic cells.

Schrott, Rose · 2022

In an in vitro human spermatogenesis model, cannabis exposure significantly altered DNA methylation at maternally imprinted genes (SGCE, GRB10, PEG3) and autism candidate genes (HCN1, NR4A2) in spermatogonial stem cell-like and spermatid-like cells..

Sperm DNA methylation alterations from cannabis extract exposure are evident in offspring.

Schrott, Rose · 2022

Cannabis extract exposure caused 3,321 differentially methylated sites in rat sperm, some of which persisted after a washout period.

Cannabis and metformin on diabetic male Wistar rat sperm and reproductive organ parameters.

van Losenoord, Wynand · 2022

Cannabis induced a significant concentration-dependent decrease in sperm motility at 5 mg/kg THC.

Perceptions About Cannabis Following Legalization Among Pregnant Individuals With Prenatal Cannabis Use in California.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2022

Three major themes emerged: easier access (via retailers and delivery services), greater acceptance (reduced stigma and more willingness to discuss use with healthcare providers), and trust in cannabis retailers (perceived as knowledgeable, nonjudgmental, and caring).

Association between gestational cannabis exposure and maternal, perinatal, placental, and childhood outcomes.

Ayonrinde, Oyekoya T · 2021

Cannabis use during pregnancy has been associated with increased risk of other substance use, impaired placental blood flow, small-for-gestational-age births, and potential childhood outcomes including increased risk of depression and ADHD.

The relationship between cannabis use and IVF outcome-a cohort study.

Har-Gil, Eden · 2021

Implantation rates were virtually identical: 40.74% for users vs.

Women's Cigarette and Marijuana Use in Pregnancy: Identifying the Role of Past Versus Recent Violence Exposure.

Miller-Graff, Laura E · 2021

Sexual intimate partner violence was associated with marijuana use during pregnancy.

Effects of prenatal synthetic cannabinoid exposure on the cerebellum of adolescent rat offspring.

Pinky, Priyanka D · 2021

Prenatal WIN55,212-2 exposure reduced oxidative stress and nitrite content in offspring cerebellum, enhanced mitochondrial Complex I and IV activities, increased pro-survival signaling (pP38), and decreased pro-apoptotic factors (caspase-3, pERK, pJNK).

Cannabinoid exposure as a major driver of pediatric acute lymphoid Leukaemia rates across the USA: combined geospatial, multiple imputation and causal inference study.

Reece, Albert Stuart · 2021

Cannabis use was independently associated with pediatric ALL rates in multiple regression models adjusted for other substances, income, and ethnicity.

Prenatal alcohol and cannabis exposure can have opposing and region-specific effects on parvalbumin interneuron numbers in the hippocampus.

Reid, Hannah M O · 2021

In the dorsal CA1, ethanol and ethanol+THC groups showed increased parvalbumin interneuron numbers, while THC alone decreased them.

Mesolimbic dopamine dysregulation as a signature of information processing deficits imposed by prenatal THC exposure.

Sagheddu, Claudia · 2021

Pre-pubertal male rats exposed prenatally to THC showed reduced population activity of VTA dopamine neurons but more tonically active neurons, enhanced sensitivity to D2 receptor activation by apomorphine, and stress-induced disruption of sensorimotor gating (PPI).

Refraining from use diminishes cannabis-associated epigenetic changes in human sperm.

Schrott, Rose · 2021

Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing identified 163 CpG sites with significantly altered DNA methylation in cannabis users' sperm, concentrated at genes involved in cardiogenesis and neurodevelopment, and many of these changes were reversed after one spermatogenic cycle (77 days) of abstinence..

Miswiring the brain: Human prenatal Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol use associated with altered fetal hippocampal brain network connectivity.

Thomason, Moriah E · 2021

Fetuses exposed to cannabis prenatally showed altered hippocampal connectivity to dorsolateral, medial, and superior frontal cortex, insula, anterior temporal, and posterior cingulate regions.

Developmental cannabidiol exposure increases anxiety and modifies genome-wide brain DNA methylation in adult female mice.

Wanner, Nicole M · 2021

F1 offspring exposed to CBD during development exhibited increased anxiety and improved memory in a sex-specific manner.

Synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018, JWH-122, UR-144 and the phytocannabinoid THC activate apoptosis in placental cells.

Almada, Marta · 2020

All four cannabinoids decreased cell viability without membrane damage (indicating apoptosis, not necrosis).

In utero Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure confers vulnerability towards cognitive impairments and alcohol drinking in the adolescent offspring: Is there a role for neuropeptide Y?

Brancato, Anna · 2020

In utero THC-exposed adolescent rats showed impaired aversive limbic memory (but intact neutral memory), decreased NPY-positive neurons in limbic regions, altered Homer protein expression, and increased alcohol consumption, relapse, and compulsive-like drinking behavior in operant chambers..

Prenatal cannabinoid exposure alters the ovarian reserve in adult offspring of rats.

Castel, Pierre · 2020

Young adult rats (PND90) exposed prenatally to the CB1/CB2 agonist WIN55212 had decreased ovarian reserve, an effect reversed by prenatal CB1 receptor blockade with SR141716.

Long-term hippocampal interneuronopathy drives sex-dimorphic spatial memory impairment induced by prenatal THC exposure.

de Salas-Quiroga, Adán · 2020

Adult male mice exposed to THC prenatally showed altered hippocampal oscillations, brain hyperexcitability, and spatial memory impairment.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome in the pregnant patient: clinical case and literature review.

Flament, Julien · 2020

The case illustrates that cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome should be considered in the differential diagnosis of vomiting during pregnancy, particularly when hot baths provide relief and conventional causes are excluded..

Paternal factors in neurodevelopmental toxicology: THC exposure of male rats causes long-lasting neurobehavioral effects in their offspring.

Holloway, Zade R · 2020

Offspring of THC-exposed fathers showed adolescent hyperactivity (at 2 mg/kg dose), faster decline in novel object interest (at 2 mg/kg), and delayed radial-arm maze learning (at 4 mg/kg).

Medicinal Use of Cannabis in Children and Pregnant Women.

Koren, Gideon · 2020

The review identified early-stage evidence for medical cannabis in three populations typically excluded from research: children with autism spectrum disorder (reduced behavioral symptoms), children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (improved behavioral outcomes), and pregnant women with hyperemesis gravidarum (reduced severe nausea)..

Delta-9 THC can be detected and quantified in the semen of men who are chronic users of inhaled cannabis.

Lee, Malinda S · 2020

Among 12 heavy cannabis users, THC was detectable above reporting levels (0.50 ng/mL) in 2 of 10 analyzable semen samples.

Cannabis Use During Lactation: Literature Review and Clinical Recommendations.

Ordean, Alice · 2020

Despite cannabis being the most commonly used psychoactive substance by 5% of Canadian postpartum women, only two studies met inclusion criteria for developmental outcomes in breastfed infants exposed to cannabis.

Altered motor development following late gestational alcohol and cannabinoid exposure in rats.

Breit, Kristen R · 2019

Cannabinoid exposure (CP-55,940) during the brain growth spurt accelerated early motor development while alcohol delayed it.

Paternal activation of CB2 cannabinoid receptor impairs placental and embryonic growth via an epigenetic mechanism.

Innocenzi, Elisa · 2019

JWH-133 (CB2 agonist) exposure in male mice decreased sperm count, impaired placental development, and reduced offspring growth.

Adverse outcome pathway of developmental neurotoxicity resulting from prenatal exposures to cannabis contaminated with organophosphate pesticide residues.

Leung, Maxwell C K · 2019

The proposed adverse outcome pathway shows that cannabinoids and chlorpyrifos share molecular targets affecting neurodevelopment.

Paternal THC exposure in rats causes long-lasting neurobehavioral effects in the offspring.

Levin, Edward D · 2019

Paternal THC exposure (2 mg/kg/day for 12 days) did not affect litter size, sex ratio, birth weight, or survival, but caused significant, long-lasting impairment in attentional performance and increased habituation of locomotor activity in adult offspring..

Four-year health trajectories of children prenatally exposed to cocaine and/or cannabis. A retrospective, cohort study in La Pampa, Argentina.

Villarreal, Marina · 2019

Exposed children (n=29) had significantly fewer health checkups (p<0.0001), more emergency department visits (p=0.03), and more hospitalizations (p=0.007), primarily for respiratory conditions.

The perception of pre- and post-natal marijuana exposure on health outcomes: A content analysis of Twitter messages.

Dakkak, H · 2018

Researchers collected 550 tweets from Twitter's inception through April 2017 that discussed marijuana use during pregnancy or breastfeeding. The majority of tweets (77.6%) had a neutral tone, suggesting widespread uncertainty about the health effects of cannabis exposure during pregnancy.

Recurrent Nausea and Vomiting in a Pregnant Woman with Chronic Marijuana Use.

Kim, Hyunyoung G · 2018

A 20-year-old pregnant woman was admitted multiple times for recurrent nausea and vomiting.

Effect of chronic THC administration in the reproductive organs of male mice, spermatozoa and in vitro fertilization.

López-Cardona, A P · 2018

Researchers gave male mice daily THC (10 mg/kg) for 30 days and compared reproductive outcomes to vehicle-treated controls. THC treatment decreased cannabinoid receptor 1 (Cnr1) gene expression in the brain cortex but not in the testes. Testicular and epididymal weight showed no differences between groups.

A case of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome with Heliobacter pylori and preeclampsia during pregnancy.

Manning Meurer, Madeline · 2018

A 21-year-old first-time pregnant woman was diagnosed with hyperemesis gravidarum at 6 weeks and later developed preeclampsia at 35 weeks. A drug screen at 30 weeks was positive for cannabis, leading to a CHS diagnosis that had been masked by pregnancy-related nausea. After labor induction, the infant was born with a negative umbilical cord drug test and developed normally. Post-delivery endoscopy revealed moderate chronic gastritis with H.

Perinatal maternal high-fat diet induces early obesity and sex-specific alterations of the endocannabinoid system in white and brown adipose tissue of weanling rat offspring.

Almeida, Mariana M · 2017

Maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy and nursing produced early obesity in rat pups, with enlarged white fat cells and increased lipid in brown fat tissue.

Committee Opinion No. 722: Marijuana use during pregnancy and lactation

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists · 2017

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists issued a formal committee opinion stating that pregnant women should discontinue cannabis use, and that doctors should not prescribe or recommend it during pregnancy or lactation.

Do Clinicians Ask Pregnant Women about Exposures to Tobacco and Cannabis Smoking, Second-Hand-Smoke and E-Cigarettes? An Australian National Cross-Sectional Survey.

Gould, Gillian S · 2017

Among 378 Australian GPs and obstetricians, 95% asked pregnant patients about cigarette smoking at most visits.

Prevalence and correlates of a lifetime cannabis use disorder among pregnant former tobacco smokers.

Emery, Rebecca L · 2016

Researchers studied 273 pregnant women who had quit smoking tobacco as a result of pregnancy to understand how common cannabis use disorder was in this population and what predicted it. Overall, 14% met criteria for a lifetime cannabis use disorder.

The endocannabinoid system in the baboon (Papio spp.) as a complex framework for developmental pharmacology.

Rodriguez-Sanchez, Iram P · 2016

Researchers cloned and characterized the genes encoding key components of the endocannabinoid system in baboons and compared them to human versions.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: a cause of refractory nausea and vomiting in pregnancy.

Alaniz, Veronica I · 2015

A 28-year-old pregnant woman was repeatedly admitted for episodic nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, experiencing complications including Mallory-Weiss esophageal tears and dehydration.

Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome During Pregnancy: A Case Report.

Andrews, Karinna H · 2015

This case report documents a pregnant woman with chronic marijuana use who presented with severe nausea, vomiting, and compulsive bathing, meeting criteria for cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.

Endocannabinoid regulation in human endometrium across the menstrual cycle.

Scotchie, Jessica G · 2015

Researchers mapped endocannabinoid system components in the uterine lining of 49 regularly cycling women.

Epigenetic Regulation of Immunological Alterations Following Prenatal Exposure to Marijuana Cannabinoids and its Long Term Consequences in Offspring.

Zumbrun, Elizabeth E · 2015

This review examined evidence from animal studies on how prenatal exposure to cannabinoids affects the developing immune system and whether those effects persist into adulthood or pass to future generations. Animal models showed that in-utero cannabinoid exposure resulted in significant T cell dysfunction and weakened immune responses to viral antigens in offspring.

Marijuana use and maternal experiences of severe nausea during pregnancy in Hawai'i.

Roberson, Emily K · 2014

Among 4,735 recently pregnant women in Hawaii, 6.0% reported marijuana use in the month before pregnancy and 2.6% reported use during pregnancy.

Cannabinoid receptor 1 signaling in embryo neurodevelopment.

Psychoyos, Delphine · 2012

Using chick and mouse embryo models, researchers demonstrated that all major components of the endocannabinoid system are present during very early embryonic development, before neurogenesis (the formation of nerve cells) begins.

Effects of chronic bhang (cannabis) administration on the reproductive system of male mice.

Banerjee, Arnab · 2011

Adult male mice received oral bhang (cannabis extract) at 3 or 6 mg/kg daily for 36 consecutive days.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: an underreported entity causing nausea and vomiting of pregnancy.

Schmid, Seraina M · 2011

This case report described a 26-year-old patient admitted at 10 weeks of pregnancy with severe nausea and vomiting unresponsive to standard antiemetic drugs.

Dysregulation of the endogenous cannabinoid system in adult rats prenatally treated with the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2.

Castelli, M Paola · 2007

Pregnant rats received daily doses of WIN 55,212-2 (a potent synthetic cannabinoid) from gestational day 5 through 20.

Cannabis and neurodevelopment: implications for psychiatric disorders.

Sundram, Suresh · 2006

Across human observational studies, prenatal exposure through maternal use was associated with small, domain-specific cognitive differences later in life, especially visuospatial skills, along with higher rates of impulsivity, inattention, hyperactivity, depressive symptoms, and substance use disorders.

Survey of medicinal cannabis use among childbearing women: patterns of its use in pregnancy and retroactive self-assessment of its efficacy against 'morning sickness'.

Westfall, Rachel E · 2006

Researchers surveyed 84 female medical cannabis users recruited through two compassion societies in British Columbia, Canada.

Evidence that anandamide-signaling regulates human sperm functions required for fertilization.

Schuel, Herbert · 2002

Anandamide, an endocannabinoid, was detected in human seminal plasma, mid-cycle oviductal fluid, and follicular fluid.

Breastfeeding and the use of recreational drugs--alcohol, caffeine, nicotine and marijuana.

Liston, J · 1998

This review examined the evidence on four commonly used recreational substances and their effects on breastfeeding, combining published research with reports from breastfeeding counselors. All four substances, alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, and marijuana, enter breast milk.

Topical Capsaicin for Symptomatic Treatment of Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome in a Pregnant Patient: A Case Report.

Huang, Jenny · 2025

A 34-year-old woman at 11 weeks gestation with intractable abdominal pain and nausea unresponsive to extensive gastrointestinal workup and multimodal antiemetic treatment was ultimately diagnosed with CHS.

"Treating me like a criminal": A qualitative study of birthing parents' perspectives on racism and biases in newborn drug testing for substance exposure during pregnancy.

Huizinga, Jamie L · 2025

Four major themes emerged: (1) honesty about substance use with providers could lead to punishment and CPS reporting, (2) historical and contemporary racism contributed to racial disparities in newborn drug testing, (3) cannabis risks during pregnancy were poorly explained by healthcare providers, and (4) participants wanted non-punitive, respectful care with clear explanations of testing and reporting policies..

Tobacco, electronic nicotine delivery system, nicotine replacement therapy, and cannabinoid use during pregnancy: A descriptive cross-sectional survey.

Kandhasamy, Sreemanjari · 2025

7.6% of 262 pregnant women used tobacco, 0.8% used e-cigarettes, 0.4% used nicotine replacement therapy, and 3.8% used cannabinoid products (all CBD-only).

Genome x Environment analysis of Sudden Unexpected Infant Death unveils etiologic heterogeneity and strong cannabis and genetic disease risks.

Kingsmore, Stephen F · 2025

Among 212 SUID cases and 620,392 controls born in San Diego County (2005-2018), prenatal cannabis use was associated with an adjusted hazard ratio of 3.7 for SUID.

Delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Signaling Through Cannabinoid Receptor 1 Alters Trophoblast Differentiation.

Koven, Jessica L · 2025

THC exposure at physiologically relevant levels significantly altered trophoblast stem cell differentiation in a CB1-dependent manner, reducing expression of syncytiotrophoblast (SynT) markers while driving differentiation toward junctional zone/trophoblast giant cell pathways.

Alcohol-Induced Dilation of Fetal Cerebral Arteries Is Region-Specific and Mediated by Cannabinoid Receptor 1 in a Sexually Dimorphic Manner.

Thapa, Shiwani · 2025

Low alcohol concentrations (5-30 mM) dilated fetal cerebral arteries in baboons.

Early Maternal Prenatal Cannabis Use and Child Developmental Delays.

Avalos, Lyndsay A · 2024

No association was observed between maternal prenatal cannabis use and child speech/language disorders (HR 0.93, 95% CI 0.84-1.03), global developmental delays (HR 1.04, 95% CI 0.68-1.59), or motor delays (HR 0.86, 95% CI 0.69-1.06).

Maternal Prenatal Cannabis Use and Child Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Avalos, Lyndsay A · 2024

After adjustment for maternal characteristics, prenatal cannabis use was not associated with child ASD (HR 1.05, 95% CI 0.84-1.32).

Neonatal outcomes associated with in utero cannabis exposure: a population-based retrospective cohort study.

Avalos, Lyndsay A · 2024

After adjustment, in utero cannabis exposure was associated with low birth weight (aOR 1.20, 95% CI 1.12-1.28), small for gestational age (aOR 1.24, 95% CI 1.18-1.30), preterm birth <37 weeks (aOR 1.06, 95% CI 1.00-1.13), and NICU admission (aOR 1.06, 95% CI 1.01-1.11).

Prenatal cannabis exposure, the brain, and psychopathology during early adolescence.

Baranger, David Aa · 2024

Prenatal cannabis exposure was associated with localized gray and white matter differences in frontal and parietal cortices, their white matter tracts, and striatal resting-state connectivity, even after accounting for pregnancy, familial, and child confounds.

Prenatal cannabis exposure and the risk for neuropsychiatric anomalies in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Bassalov, Hely · 2024

After adjusting for confounders, pooled ORs: ADHD 1.13 (95% CI 1.01-1.26); ASD 1.04 (0.74-1.46, not significant); psychotic symptoms 1.29 (0.97-1.72, not significant); anxiety 1.34 (0.79-2.29, not significant); depression 0.72 (0.11-4.57, not significant); offspring cannabis use 1.20 (1.01-1.42)..

Counseling About Cannabis Use During Pregnancy and Lactation: A Qualitative Study of Patient and Clinician Perspectives.

Cernat, Alexandra · 2024

Three phases of clinical encounters influenced cannabis decisions: initiating discussion, making sense of information, and the outcome.

Risk of Adverse Neonatal Outcomes After Combined Prenatal Cannabis and Nicotine Exposure.

Crosland, B Adam · 2024

Cannabis or nicotine alone each increased risks of infant death (0.7% for both), small-for-gestational-age (14.3% and 13.7%), and preterm delivery (12.2% and 12.0%).

Dynamic overrepresentation of accumbal cues in food- and opioid-seeking rats after prenatal THC exposure.

Luján, Miguel Á · 2024

Prenatal THC exposure led to increased cue-evoked dopamine release and overrepresentation of effort-driven reward encoding patterns in the nucleus accumbens.

Reduced fetal cerebral blood flow predicts perinatal mortality in a mouse model of prenatal alcohol and cannabinoid exposure.

Rouzer, Siara Kate · 2024

All drug exposures decreased fetal cranial blood flow 24 hours after the final dose.

Prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure alters fetal neurodevelopment in rhesus macaques.

Ryan, Kimberly S · 2024

THC exposure was associated with significant age-by-sex interactions in brain volumetric growth on MRI, differences in fetal brain histology suggestive of dysregulation, and two extracellular vesicle-associated miRNAs in fetal CSF linked to dysregulated axonal guidance and netrin signaling pathways..

Associations between prenatal and postnatal substance exposure and salivary C-reactive protein in early childhood.

Simon, Shauna G · 2023

Prenatal tobacco exposure was associated with higher salivary CRP in children at age 4-6, and prenatal cannabis exposure showed similar patterns, particularly when measured via biomarkers rather than self-report..

A systematic review of in utero cannabis exposure and risk for structural birth defects.

Sujan, Ayesha C · 2023

For the most-studied defect types (cardiac, gastrointestinal, CNS), findings were mixed across studies.

Prenatal cannabinoid exposure and early language development.

Talavera-Barber, Maria M · 2023

Late-exposed infants (2nd/3rd trimester) scored significantly higher on expressive and receptive language subscales at 12 months compared to unexposed infants.

Making informed choices about cannabis use during pregnancy and lactation: A qualitative study of information use.

Taneja, Shipra · 2023

Participants deliberately sought information about cannabis risks during pregnancy but found it inadequate.

Prenatal cannabis use and its impact on offspring neuro-behavioural outcomes: A systematic review.

Thompson, Mary · 2023

Meta-analyses showed no significant associations between prenatal cannabis exposure and attention, global IQ, reading, written comprehension, spelling, or mathematics.

Systematic Review: Polysubstance Prevalence Estimates Reported during Pregnancy, US, 2009-2020.

Tran, Emmy L · 2023

Polysubstance use during pregnancy involved diverse combinations, with cannabis commonly appearing alongside other substances.

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and prenatal cannabis use in a Michigan sample.

Vanderziel, Alyssa · 2023

Women experiencing nausea and vomiting of pregnancy were more likely to use cannabis prenatally.

Pregnant individual's lived experience of cannabis use during the COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative study.

Young-Wolff, Kelly C · 2023

The COVID-19 pandemic contributed to changes in prenatal cannabis use through increased stress, isolation, reduced healthcare access, and heightened anxiety.

Prenatal exposure to CB2 receptors agonist differentially impacts male and female germ cells via histone modification.

Zucchi, Alice · 2023

Prenatal CB2 receptor activation caused sex-specific changes in germ cell development in offspring, with effects mediated through histone modifications (epigenetic changes).